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هند

(له بھارت نه مخ گرځېدلی)
  

هند چې رسمي نوم يې د هندوستان جمهوريت دی، په سويلي اسيا کې پروت هېواد دی. د ځمکې له پلوه اووم ستر هېواد دی، د نفوسو له پلوه په نړۍ کې دويم ستر هېواد دی او د نړۍ په کچه ستره ديموکراته ټولنه لري. سويل ته يې دهند سمندر، سويل لوېديځ ته يې عربي سمندر او سويل ختيځ ته يې د بنګال ابنا پرته ده، لوېدیځ ته له پاکستان سره ځمکنۍ پوله لري. چين، نيپال او بوټان يې شمال ته دي، بنګله ديش او ميانمار يې ختيځ ته پراته دي. په هند سمندر کې، هندوستان د سريلانکا اومالديف په ګاونډ کې پروت دی؛ اندامان او نيکوبار ټاپوګان يې له تايلينډ، ميانمار او اندونيزيا سره سمندري پولې لري.[۵]

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د هند نيمه لويې وچې ته عصري انسان له افريقا نه له ۵۵۰۰۰ کاله نه مخکې رارسېدلی دی. د دوی اوږد نيواک چې په لومړيو کې د ښکاريانو د جلا جلا ډلو په ډول و، دا سيمه په لوړه کچه متنوعه کړه او د انسان په جينتيکي تنوع کې یې له افريقا نه وروسته دويمه سيمه ده. ۹۰۰۰ کاله مخکې په دې نيمه لويه وچه کې اوسېدونکي انسانان د سيند په لوېدیځو څنډو کې راڅرګند شول او له میلاد مخکې په درېيمه زريزه کې دا خلک کرار کرار د سیند درې په مدنيت واوښتل. له میلاد مخکې په ۱۲۰۰ کې، د سنسکريت يو لرغونی ډول چې د اندو-اروپايي ژبو نه يوه ده، له شمال لويديځو برخو نه په هند کې خپره شوه او د ریګويدا ژبې په بڼه څرګنده شوه، په دې ډول په هندوستان کې د هندويزم پيل ثابت شو. د هندوستان دراويدي ژبې د دې سيمې په شمالي او لوېديځو سيمو کې ځای پر ځای شوې. له میلاد مخکې په ۴۰۰ کې، په هندويزم کې ډلبندي او شړل راپورته شول، بوديزم او جينيزم راپورته شول، او دوی له وراثت سره له اړيکې پرته د ټولنيز نظم اعلان وکړ. لومړي سياسي جوړښتونه د ماوريا او ګويتا سترواکيو د جوړېدو لامل وګرځېدل چې د ګنګا سيند په حوزه کې يې مرکزيت و. په ګډه سره د دوی پړاوونه له پراخو نوښتونو نه ډک وو، خو په همدې موده کې د ښځو ځای مخ پر ځوړ ولاړ او همدا پړاوونه د يوه چا نه لمس کولو نظر د عقايدو په يو منظم نظام کې شامل شو. په سويلي هندوستان کې، منځنيو سلطنتونو د سويل ختيځې اسيا سلطنتونو پر لور ، دراويدي ژبې او مذهبي کلتورونه ولېږدول.  [۶][۷][۸][۹][۱۰][۱۱][۱۲][۱۳][۱۴][۱۵][۱۶][۱۷]

د منځني پړاو په لومړيو کې، مسيحيت، د اسلام سپېڅلي دین، يهوديت او زردشتي دين د هندوستان په سويلي او لوېديځو څنډو کې رېښې وکړې. د مرکزي اسيا مسلمانو پوځونو په پرله پسې ډول د هندوستان شمالي اوارې سيمې ونيولې او په پايله کې يې د ډیلي سلطنت جوړ کړ او په دې توګه يې شمالي هندوستان په منځنيو پېړيو کې د نړيوال اسلام شبکو ته راکش کړ. په پنځلسمه پېړۍ کې، ويجاياناګارا سترواکۍ د هند په سويل کې د اوږدې مودې يوهندو کلتوري جوړښت رامنځ ته کړ. په پنجاب کې سيکيزم سر راپورته کړ چې اساسي دين يې رد کړ. په ۱۵۲۶ز کال کې مغول سترواکۍ د دوه پېړيو لپاره د نسبي سولې پړاو پيل کړ او تر شا يې د ابادۍ يو روښانه تاريخ پرېښود. له دې وروسته، کرار کرار د بریتانیې ختيځ  هندوستان کمپني واکمني پراخه شوه او هندوستان يې په يوه اقتصادي مستعمره بدل کړ، خو د هند واکمني يې هم خوندي کړه. په ۱۸۵۸ز کال کې د بریتانیې د تاج واکمني پيل شوه. هغه حقوق چې له هندوستانيانو سره يې ژمنه شوې وه، کرار کرار ورکړل شول، خو تيکنالوژيکي بدلونونه معرفي شول او د زده کړې، عصريت او عامه ژوند نظرياتو هم رېښې پيدا کړې. يو مخکښ ملتپاله خوځښت سر راپورته کړ، خو د عدم تشدد په مقاومت پېژندل کېده او په هندوستان کې د بریتانیې واکمنۍ ته د پای ورکولو بنسټيز لامل وګرځېد. په ۱۹۴۷ز کال کې د بریتانیې هند سترواکۍ په دوو خپلواکو واکمنيو ووېشل شوه، يو يې د هندو اکثريت قلمرو هندوستان و او بل يې د مسلمان اکثريت قلمرو پاکستان و، په دې موده کې بې ساري ځاني تلفات او سترې کډوالۍ رامنځ ته شوې. [۱۸][۱۹][۲۰][۲۱][۲۲][۲۳][۲۴][۲۵][۲۶][۲۷][۲۸][۲۹][۳۰]

هند له ۱۹۵۰ز کال نه يو فدرالي جمهوريت دی، چې په يوه دموکراتيک پارلماني نظام اداره کېږي. دا هېواد يوه تکثيري، ګڼ ژبې او ګڼ توکمې ټولنه لري. د هندوستان نفوس چې په ۱۹۵۱ز کال کې ۳۶۱ ميليونه و، په ۲۰۱۱ز کال کې يو اعشاريه دوه سوه او يوولس ميليارده ته ورسېد. په همدې موده کې، د دې هېواد د يوه تن پر سر عايد په کال کې له څلور شپېته امريکايي ډالرو نه ۱.۴۹۸ امريکايي ډالرو ته ورسېد، د سودا درجه يې له ۱۶.۶ سلنې نه ۷۴ سلنې ته لوړ شو. په ۱۹۵۱ز کال کې  له یو څه بې وزله هېواد نه، هندوستان د چټکې ودې په ستر اقتصاد او د معلوماتي تيکنالوژۍ چوپړتياوو په دروازه بدل شو، په داسې حال کې چې منځنۍ طبقه يې مخ په پراختيا ده. هندوستان فضايي پروګرام لري، چې له ځمکې بهرګڼ طرحه شوي ماموريتونه لري. هندي فلمونه، موسيقي او روحاني زده کړې په نړيوال کلتور کې مخ پر زياتېدو نقش لوبوي. هندوستان د بې وزلۍ په کچه کې د پام وړ کمښت راوستی، که څه هم دا چاره د اقتصادي نابرابرۍ د زياتوالي په بیه تر سره شوې ده. هندوستان هستوي وسلې لري، په همدې بنسټ دا هېواد د نظامي لګښتونو په لوړه درجه کې دی. له ګاونډيانو پاکستان او چين سره د کشمير پر سر لانجې لري، کومې چې د شلمې پېړۍ له نيمايي نه، نه دي حل شوې. هغه ټولنيزې اقتصادي ننګونې چې هند ورسره مخامخ دی، جنسي نابرابري، د کوچنيانو خوارځواکي او د هوا ککړتيا د کچې لوړېدل دي. د هندوستان ځمکه د ژوند د څلورو ډولونو په لرلو سره ډېره متنوعه ده. ځنګلونو د هندوستان يو وېشت اعشاريه اووه سلنه ځمکه پوښلې ده. د هندوستان د وحشي حيواناتو له ژوند نه چې په دوديز ډول ورته په هندي کلتور کې د زغم په سترګه کتل کېدل، په دې ځنګلونو او نورو سيمو کې په خوندي شوو استوګنځايونو کې پالل کېږي.[۳۱][۳۲][۳۳][۳۴][۳۵][۳۶][۳۷][۳۸][۳۹][۴۰][۴۱]

رېښه

د اکسفورډ انګليسي ویي پانګې په استناد: (درېيم چاپ ۲۰۰۹ز)، هند نوم د کلاسيکي لاتيني ژبې له ويي هند نه اخستل شوی، په دې نوم سره سويلي اسيا او د دې سيمې ناټاکلو ختيځو سيمو ته کارېده او په دې ډول په پرله پسې ډول مشتق شوی له: د لرغوني يوناني هلنيستي؛ له لرغونې فارسي هندوش نه کوم چې د هخامنشي سترواکۍ ختيځ ولايت و او په پايله کې هغه چې دې ته ډېر نژدې دی، د سنسکريت ژبې سينډوس يا «درياب» نه اخستل شوی، په ځانګړي ډول د سیند سيند او په ضمني ډول د هغې د ښه مېشت شوي سويلي حوزې نه. لرغونو يونانيانو هنديانو ته د اندويي Indoi چې ژباړه يې ده «د سیند خلک» ويل.[۴۲][۴۳][۴۴]

د بهارت اصطلاح هم، په هندي حماسي شاعرۍ کې څرګنده شوې او هم د هندوستان په اساسي قانون کې، له دې اصطلاح نه په يو څه بدلونونو په ډېرو هندي ژبو کې کار اخستل کېږي. د تاريخي نوم بهارتوارشا يوه نوې ژباړه، کوم نوم چې په اصل کې شمالي هند ته کارول کېږي، بهارت د نولسمې پېړۍ په منځ کې د هند لپاره د يوه لرغوني نوم په توګه ډېر ارزښت خپل کړ. [۴۵][۴۶][۴۷][۴۸][۴۹][۵۰]

هندوستان د هند يو منځنی فارسي نوم دی، د مغولو د سترواکۍ پر مهال رواج شوی او تر اوسه په پراخه کچه کارول کېږي. معناوې يې بېلا بېلې کېږي، د اوسني هند شمالي سيمو او پاکستان يا ټول هند ته کارول کېږي. [۵۱]

تاريخچه

لرغونی هندوستان

۵۵۰۰۰ کاله مخکې، لومړی عصري انسان يا هومو ساپينس له افريقا نه د هند نيمه لويې وچې ته ورسېدل، چېرې چې له دې مخکې دوی تکامل موندلی و. په سويلي اسيا کې د لومړي عصري انسان پاتې شونو تاريخ ۳۰۰۰۰ کاله مخکې وخت ته رسېږي. له میلاد مخکې له ۶۵۰۰ کاله نه وروسته، د خوراکي توليداتو او څارويو پالنې، دايمي جوړښتونو جوړښت او د کرنيزو اضافي توکو زېرمه کولو شواهد په مهرګړ او نورو سيمو کې څرګند شوي دي چې، دا سيمې اوس د پاکستان د بلوچستان اړوند دي. دا حالت کرار کرار د سیند په مدنيت کې وده وکړه، کوم چې په سويلي اسيا کې لومړی ښاري تمدن و او له میلاد مخکې په ۲۵۰۰-۱۹۰۰ کې غوړېدلی وچې د اوسني پاکستان او لوېديځ هندوستان په مربوطاتو کې يې موقعيت درلود. د موهنجداړو، هړپا، دهولاويرا او کالي بينګن په څېر ښارونو په مرکزيت او په ډول ډول خوراکونو تکيه کولو سره دا تمدن د لاسي صنايعو په توليد او پراخه سوداګرۍ کې ښکېل و.[۵۲][۵۳][۵۴][۵۵][۵۶][۵۷][۵۸][۵۹]

آيالاتونه

جغرافیه

تاریخ

کلتور

اقتصاد

آرپوهه

د هند نوم د لرغونې پاړسي ژبې د لغت هندو, او د سانسيکرت د ژبې لغت سندو, نه راوتلی. سندو په پخوانيو تاريخي ليکنو کې د اباسيند د رود نوم دی.[۶۰] لرغونو يونانانو هندوان د اندوی (Ινδοί) په نامه پېژندل، چې د دغه نوم مانا د انډس د رود يا د اباسيند د رود خلک دی.[۶۱] د هند اساسي قانون او د هند په بېلابېلو ژبو کې د بهارت نوم هم د دغه هېواد لپاره د يوه رسمي نوم په توگه کارېدلی.[۶۲] د بهارت نوم د هند د افسانوي پاچا بهارتا له نوم نه سرچينه اخيستې. بل نوم چې د هند لپاره کارېږي هغه د پارسي ژبې نوم هندوستان دی چې د دغه لغت مانا د هندوانو خاوره يا د هندوانو زمکه ده.[۶۳]

يادښتونه

  1. ↑     {{cite web}}: Empty citation (help)CS1 errors: unsupported parameter (link)
  2. ↑ http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS
  3. ↑ http://indiatoday.intoday.in/education/story/112-as-indias-emergency-number/1/629526.html
  4. ↑ http://chartsbin.com/view/edr
  5. ↑ –The Essential Desk Reference, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 76, ISBN 978-0-19-512873-4 "Official name: Republic of India."; –John Da Graça (2017), Heads of State and Government, London: Macmillan, p. 421, ISBN 978-1-349-65771-1 "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)"; –Graham Rhind (2017), Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries, Taylor & Francis, p. 302, ISBN 978-1-351-93326-1 "Official name: Republic of India; Bharat."; –Bradnock, Robert W. (2015), The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs, Routledge, p. 108, ISBN 978-1-317-40511-5 "Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya"; –Penguin Compact Atlas of the World, Penguin, 2012, p. 140, ISBN 978-0-7566-9859-1 "Official name: Republic of India"; –Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Merriam-Webster, 1997, pp. 515–516, ISBN 978-0-87779-546-9 "Officially, Republic of India"; –Complete Atlas of the World, 3rd Edition: The Definitive View of the Earth, DK Publishing, 2016, p. 54, ISBN 978-1-4654-5528-4 "Official name: Republic of India"; –Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013, CQ Press, 10 May 2013, p. 726, ISBN 978-1-4522-9937-2 "India (Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya)"
  6. ↑ (a) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 1, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8, Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present. (page 1) (b) Michael D. Petraglia; Bridget Allchin (22 May 2007). The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics. Springer Science+Business Media. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4020-5562-1. Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka. (c)Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 23, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2, Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago. (page 23)
  7. ↑ Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 28, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8
  8. ↑ (a) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–5, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8; (b) Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 33, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2
  9. ↑ (a) Lowe, John J. (2015). Participles in Rigvedic Sanskrit: The syntax and semantics of adjectival verb forms. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0-19-100505-3. (The Rigveda) consists of 1,028 hymns (suktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India., Witzel, Michael (2008). "Vedas and Upanisads". In Gavin Flood (ed.). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 68–70. ISBN 978-0-470-99868-7. It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); ... The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a tape-recording of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. (pp. 68–69) ... The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE. (p. 70) (c) Doniger, Wendy (3 February 2014), On Hinduism, Oxford University Press, pp. xviii, 10, ISBN 978-0-19-936009-3, A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500-1000 BCE Rig Veda; ca. 1200-900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda (p. xviii); Hindu texts began with the Rig Veda ('Knowledge of Verses'), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE (p. 10) (d) Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, p. 19, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6, In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence 'panch' and 'ab') draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva). (e) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, pp. 14–15, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. ... It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as ‘Arya’—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence."; (f) Robb, Peter (2011), A History of India, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 46–, ISBN 978-0-230-34549-2, The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas.[مړه لينکونه]
  10. ↑ (a) Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2020), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, pp. 2, 4, ISBN 978-0-19-063339-4, The RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2) Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity (p. 4).; (b) Flood, Gavin (20 August 2020), "Introduction", in Gavin Flood (ed.), The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–, ISBN 978-0-19-105322-1, I take the term 'Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterized by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).; (c) Michaels, Axel (2017). Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis (ed.). The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 86–97. ISBN 978-0-19-100709-5. Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras (initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary from region to region, from class (varna) to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests. (p 86) (d) Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism.
  11. ↑ (a) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 25, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8; (b) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 16, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8
  12. ↑ Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 16, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8
  13. ↑ Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 59, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2
  14. ↑ (a) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, pp. 16–17, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8; (b) Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 67, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2; (c) Robb, Peter (2011), A History of India, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 56–57, ISBN 978-0-230-34549-2[مړه لينکونه]; (d) Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, pp. 29–30, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6
  15. ↑ (a) Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, pp. 28–29, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6; (b) Glenn Van Brummelen (2014), "Arithmetic", in Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, pp. 46–48, ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1
  16. ↑ (a) Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 20, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8; (b) Stein 2010, p. 90; (c) Ramusack, Barbara N. (1999), "Women in South Asia", in Barbara N. Ramusack, Sharon L. Sievers (ed.), Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History, Indiana University Press, pp. 27–29, ISBN 0-253-21267-7
  17. ↑ Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 17, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
  18. ↑ (a) Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, p. 54, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6; (b) Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, pp. 78–79, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7; (c) Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 76, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2
  19. ↑ (a) Ludden, David (2013), India and South Asia: A Short History, Oneworld Publications, pp. 68–70, ISBN 978-1-78074-108-6; (b) Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, pp. 19, 24, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
  20. ↑ (a) Dyson, Tim (20 September 2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 48, ISBN 978-0-19-256430-6; (b) Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 52, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
  21. ↑ Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 74, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7"
  22. ↑ Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 267, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
  23. ↑ Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 152, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7
  24. ↑ Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 106, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2
  25. ↑ (a) Asher, Catherine B.; Talbot, Cynthia (2006), India Before Europe, Cambridge University Press, p. 289, ISBN 978-0-521-80904-7; (b) Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 120, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2
  26. ↑ Taylor, Miles (2016), "The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to Prince George", in Aldrish, Robert; McCreery, Cindy (eds.), Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and Overseas Empires, Manchester University Press, pp. 38–39, ISBN 978-1-5261-0088-7; (b) Peers, Douglas M. (2013), India Under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885, Routledge, p. 76, ISBN 978-1-317-88286-2, خوندي شوی له اصلي څخه په 31 March 2017, بياځلي په 13 August 2019
  27. ↑ Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Hay, Stephen N.; Bary, William Theodore De (1988), "Nationalism Takes Root: The Moderates", Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan, Columbia University Press, p. 85, ISBN 978-0-231-06414-9
  28. ↑ Marshall, P. J. (2001), [[[:کينډۍ:Google books]] The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire], Cambridge University Press, pp. 179–181, ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7 {{citation}}: Check |url= value (help)
  29. ↑ Copland 2001, pp. 71–78
  30. ↑ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 222
  31. ↑ Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, pp. 219, 262, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8
  32. ↑ Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 8, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2
  33. ↑ Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2012), A Concise History of Modern India, Cambridge University Press, pp. 265–266, ISBN 978-1-107-02649-0
  34. ↑ Metcalf, Barbara D.; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2012), A Concise History of Modern India, Cambridge University Press, p. 266, ISBN 978-1-107-02649-0
  35. ↑ Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 216, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8
  36. ↑ (a) "Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent", Encyclopaedia Britannica, خوندي شوی له اصلي څخه په 13 August 2019, بياځلي په 15 August 2019, Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent ... has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947.; (b) Pletcher, Kenneth, "Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia", Encyclopaedia Britannica, خوندي شوی له اصلي څخه په 2 April 2019, بياځلي په 16 August 2019, Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, ... constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India; (c) C. E Bosworth (2006). "Encyclopedia Americana: Jefferson to Latin". Encyclopedia Americana. Scholastic Library Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7172-0139-6. “KASHMIR, kash'mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947” 
  37. ↑ Narayan, Jitendra; John, Denny; Ramadas, Nirupama (2018). "Malnutrition in India: status and government initiatives". Journal of Public Health Policy. 40 (1): 126–141. doi:10.1057/s41271-018-0149-5. ISSN 0197-5897. PMID 30353132. S2CID 53032234.
  38. ↑ Balakrishnan, Kalpana; Dey, Sagnik; et al. (2019). "The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017". The Lancet Planetary Health. 3 (1): e26–e39. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4. ISSN 2542-5196. PMC 6358127. PMID 30528905.
  39. ↑ India, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 2019{{citation}}: CS1 errors: archive-url (link) CS1 errors: unsupported parameter (link)
  40. ↑ "Forest Cover in States/UTs in India in 2019". Forest Research Institute via National Informatics Centre. بياځلي په October 16, 2021.
  41. ↑ Karanth, K. Ullas; Gopal, Rajesh (2005), "An ecology-based policy framework for human-tiger coexistence in India", in Rosie Woodroffe; Simon Thirgood; Alan Rabinowitz (eds.), People and Wildlife, Conflict Or Co-existence?, Cambridge University Press, p. 374, ISBN 978-0-521-53203-7
  42. ↑ India (noun), Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd Edition, 2009 (subscription required)
  43. ↑ Thieme, P. (1970), "Sanskrit sindu-/Sindhu- and Old Iranian hindu-/Hindu-", in Mary Boyce; Ilya Gershevitch (eds.), W. B. Henning memorial volume, Lund Humphries, pp. 447–450, ISBN 978-0-85331-255-0
  44. ↑ Kuiper 2010، م. 86.
  45. ↑ Clémentin-Ojha, Catherine (2014). "'India, that is Bharat…': One Country, Two Names". South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal. 10. خوندي شوی له the original on 28 September 2015.
  46. ↑ Jha, Dwijendra Narayan (2014), Rethinking Hindu Identity, Routledge, p. 11, ISBN 978-1-317-49034-0
  47. ↑ Singh, Upinder (2017), Political Violence in Ancient India, Harvard University Press, p. 253, ISBN 978-0-674-98128-7
  48. ↑ Clémentin-Ojha, Catherine (2014). "'India, that is Bharat…': One Country, Two Names". South Asia Multidisciplinary Academic Journal. 10. خوندي شوی له the original on 28 September 2015.
  49. ↑ Barrow, Ian J. (2003). "From Hindustan to India: Naming change in changing names". South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies. 26 (1): 37–49. doi:10.1080/085640032000063977. S2CID 144039519.
  50. ↑ Ministry of Law and Justice 2007.
  51. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica.
  52. ↑ Dyson, Tim (2018), A Population History of India: From the First Modern People to the Present Day, Oxford University Press, p. 1, ISBN 978-0-19-882905-8 Quote: "Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. ... it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present. (page 1)"
  53. ↑ Michael D. Petraglia; Bridget Allchin (22 May 2007). The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics. Springer Science + Business Media. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4020-5562-1. Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."
  54. ↑ Fisher, Michael H. (2018), An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge University Press, p. 23, ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2 Quote: "Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago (page 23)"
  55. ↑ Possehl 2003، م. 2.
  56. ↑ Singh 2009، م. 181.
  57. ↑ Kulke او Rothermund 2004، مم. 21–23.
  58. ↑ Coningham او Young 2015، مم. 104–105.
  59. ↑ Petraglia او Allchin 2007، م. 6.
  60. ↑ "India", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University Press.
  61. ↑ Basham, A. L. (2000). The Wonder That Was India. South Asia Books. ISBN 0283992573.
  62. ↑ "Official name of the Union". Courts Informatics Division, National Informatics Centre, Ministry of Comm. and Information Tech. بياځلي په 2007-08-08. Name and territory of the Union- India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.
  63. ↑ "Hindustan". Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2007. بياځلي په 2007-06-18.
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