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'''اپلاتون''' ([[يوناني ژبه|يوناني]]: Πλάτων, ''Plátōn'') (c.[[427 BC|427]]–c.[[347 BC]]) يو ډېر زيات اغېزناکه [[لرغونې يوناني|لرغونې يوناني فېلسوف]] او د [[سكرات]] زده کوونکی وه چې د خپل استاد، د سكرات د اندونو نه متاثره شوی و. هغه يو تکړه شمېرپوه او د فلسفي ديالوګونو ليکوال او په [[آتېن]] کې د [[اکادمۍ ]] بنسټګر دی، چې [[ارستو]] هم په نوموړې اکادمۍ کې زده کړې کړي.
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{{Infobox_Philosopher |
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سيمه = غربي فلسفه |
پېر = [[لرغونې فلسفه]] |
color = #B0C4DE |
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image_name = Plato.JPG|
image_caption = Plato|
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نوم = افلاطون |
زېږېدنه = c.[[427 BC | 427]]–[[428 BC]] |
مړينه = [[347 BC]]|
school_tradition = [[Platonism]] |
main_interests = [[Metaphysics]], [[Epistemology]], [[اخلاق]], [[Aesthetics]], [[سياست]], [[زده کړې]], [[د شمېرپوهنې فلسفه]]|
influences = [[سقراط]], [[Archytas]], [[Democritus]], [[Parmenides]] |
influenced = Most philosophers who followed him |
notable_ideas = [[Platonic realism]]|
}}
'''اپلاتون''' ([[يوناني ژبه|يوناني]]: Πλάτων, ''Plátōn'') (c.[[427 BC|427]]–c.[[347 BC]]) يو ډېر زيات اغېزناکه [[لرغونې يوناني|لرغونې يوناني فېلسوف]] او د [[سكرات]] زده کوونکی وه چې د خپل استاد، د سكرات د اندونو نه متاثره شوی و. هغه يو تکړه شمېرپوه او د فلسفي ديالوګونو ليکوال او په [[آتېن]] کې د [[اکادمۍ Academy]] بنسټګر دی، چې [[ارسطو]] هم په نوموړې اکادمۍ کې زده کړې کړي.
افلاطون به په پراخه کچه په اکادمۍ کې په زده کړو ورکولو بوخت وه خو د دې ترڅنګ به يې په ډېرو فلسفي چارو لکه سياست، اخلاقيات، مېټافيزيک او منېق ليکنې هم کولې. دده ترټولو اهمې ليکنې دده ډيالوګونه دي، که څه هم چې دده نه راپاتې ډېرې لېشناکې او لطيفې خبرې او نکتې هم راپاتې دي او ځينې ليکونه هم د هغه د وختونو نه راپاتې دي کوم چې ده پخپل لاس کښلي. تاريخپوهان پدې اند دي چې د افلاطون ټول معتبره ډيالوګونه د تاريخ په بېلابېلو پړاوونو کې بچ او خوندي پاتې شوي.
However, some dialogues ascribed to Plato by the Greeks are now considered by the consensus of scholars to be either suspect (e.g., ''[[Alcibiades (dialogues)|First Alcibiades]]'', ''[[Clitophon (dialogue)|Clitophon]]'') or probably spurious (such as ''[[Demodocus (dialogue)|Demodocus]]'', or the ''[[Alcibiades (dialogues)|Second Alcibiades]]''). The letters are all considered to probably be spurious, with the possible exception of the Seventh Letter.
[[Will Durant]], in the preface to the second edition of his book ''The Story of Philosophy'', writes: "It did not seem to Plato any insult to philosophy that it should be transformed into literature, realized as drama, and beautified with style; nor any derogation to its dignity that it should apply itself, even intelligibly, to living problems of morality and the state."
[[Socrates]] is often a character in the dialogues of Plato. How much of the content and argument of any given dialogue is Socrates' point of view, and how much of it is Plato's, is heavily disputed, since Socrates himself did not write down his teachings; this ambiguity is often referred to as the "[[Socratic problem]]". However, Plato was doubtless strongly influenced by Socrates' teachings, so many of the ideas presented, at least in his early works, were likely borrowings or adaptations.
== ژوندليک ==
[[دوتنه:Delphi Platon statue 1.jpg|thumb|200px|افلاطون]]
Plato was born in Athens or [[Aegina]] in May or December in [[428 BC|428]] or [[427 BC]]. He was raised in a moderately well-to-do aristocratic family. His father was named Ariston, and his mother Perictione. His family claimed descent from the ancient [[King of Athens|Athenian kings]], and he was related – though there is disagreement as to exactly how – to the prominent politician [[Critias]]. According to a late [[Hellenistic]] account by [[Diogenes Laertius]], Plato's given name was ''Aristocles'', whereas his wrestling coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed him "Platon", meaning "broad" on account of his robust figure. Diogenes mentions alternative accounts that Plato derived his name from the breadth (''platutês'') of his eloquence, or else because he was very wide (''platus'') across the forehead. According to [[Dicaearchus]], Plato wrestled at the [[Isthmian games]]. Such was his learning and ability that the ancient Greeks declared him to be the son of Apollo and told how, in his infancy, bees had settled on his lips, as prophecy of the honeyed words which were to flow from them.
Plato became a pupil of Socrates in his youth, and – at least according to his own account – he attended his master's trial, though not his execution. He was deeply affected by the city's treatment of Socrates, and much of his early work records his memories of his teacher. It is suggested that much of his [[ethic]]al writing is in pursuit of a society where similar injustices could not occur. During the twelve years following the death of Socrates, he traveled extensively in Italy, Sicily, Egypt, and Cyrene in a quest for knowledge.
After his return to Athens at the age of forty, Plato founded one of the earliest known organized schools in Western civilization on a plot of land in the Grove of Academe. The [[Academy]] was "a large enclosure of ground which was once the property of a citizen at Athens named [[Academus]]... some, however, say that it received its name from an ancient hero" (Robinson, Arch. Graec. I i 16), and it operated until [[529]], when it was closed by [[Justinian I]] of [[Byzantium]], who saw it as a threat to the propagation of [[Christianity]]. Many intellectuals were schooled in the Academy, the most prominent one being [[Aristotle]].
Plato was also deeply influenced by a number of prior philosophers, including: the [[Pythagoreans]], whose notions of numerical [[harmony]] have clear echoes in Plato's notion of [[the Forms]]; [[Anaxagoras]], who taught Socrates and who held that the [[mind]], or [[reason]], pervades everything; and [[Parmenides]], who argued for the unity of all things and may have influenced Plato's concept of the [[soul]].
== کار ==
[[دوتنه:Plato-raphael.jpg|thumb|left|[[Raphael]]'s Plato in ''The School of Athens'' fresco, probably in the likeness of [[Leonardo da Vinci]]. Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in [[The Forms]].]]
=== Themes ===
Unlike Socrates, Plato wrote down his philosophical views, leaving behind a considerable number of manuscripts.
In Plato's writings are debates concerning the best possible form of [[government]], featuring adherents of [[aristocracy]], [[democracy]], [[monarchy]], as well as other issues. A central theme is the conflict between [[nature]] and [[Convention (norm)|convention]], concerning the role of [[heredity]] and the [[environmental psychology|environment]] on human [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[personality]] long before the modern "[[nature versus nurture]]" debate began in the time of [[Thomas Hobbes]] and [[John Locke]], with its modern continuation in such controversial works as ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'' and ''[[The Bell Curve]]''.
Another theme in Plato's writing is the distinction between [[knowledge]] and true [[belief]]. From this problems, ideas, and arguments arose which continue to be debated by modern philosophers. Unlike most modern writers, Plato argued that the main difference between knowledge and true belief was the nature of their objects: knowledge was of eternal truths (later, the Forms), while true belief was of ephemeral, contingent truths.
<!-- This isn't a theme.
The story of the lost city or continent of [[Atlantis]] came to us as an illustrative story told by Plato in his ''[[Timaeus]]'' and ''[[Critias]]''.
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Plato also had a position on the art of writing as opposed to oral communication. This is evidenced in his [[Phaedrus]]{{rf | 1 | Plato1}} dialogue and his Seventh Epistle.{{rf | 2 | Plato2}} He said that oral communication is superior to the written word, especially in the accuracy of the oral word over the written word and in his Seventh Epistle that nothing of importance should be written down but transmitted orally.
=== بڼه او بنسټ ===
Plato wrote mainly in the form known as [[dialogue]]. In the early dialogues, several characters discuss a topic by asking questions of one another. Socrates figures prominently, and a lively, more disorganised form of ''[[elenchos]]''/[[dialectic]] is present; these are called the [[Socratic Dialogue]]s.
The nature of these dialogues changed a great deal over the course of Plato's life. It is generally agreed that Plato's earlier works are more closely based on Socrates' thought, whereas his later writing increasingly breaks away from the views of his former teacher. In the middle dialogues, Socrates becomes a mouthpiece for Plato's own philosophy, and the question-and-answer style is more ''[[pro forma]]'': the main figure represents Plato and the minor characters have little to say except "yes", "of course" and "very true". The late dialogues read more like [[treatise]]s, and Socrates is often absent or quiet. It is assumed that while some of the early dialogues could be based on Socrates' actual conversations, the later dialogues were written entirely by Plato. The question of which, if any, of the dialogues are truly Socratic is known as the [[Socratic problem]].
The ostensible ''[[mise en scène]]'' of a dialogue distances both Plato and a given reader from the philosophy being discussed; one can choose between at least two options of [[perception]]: either to participate in the dialogues, in the [[idea]]s being discussed, or choose to see the [[content]] as expressive of the personalities contained within the work.
The dialogue format also allows Plato to put unpopular opinions in the mouth of unsympathetic characters, such as [[Thrasymachus]] in '' [[Republic (Plato)|The Republic]]''.
== مېټافيزيک ==
: ''Main article: [[Platonic idealism]]''
Platonism has traditionally been interpreted as a form of metaphysical [[dualism]], sometimes referred to as Platonic or Exaggerated Realism. According to this reading, Plato's metaphysics divides the world into two distinct aspects: the intelligible world of "forms", and the perceptual world we see around us. The perceptual world consists of imperfect copies of the intelligible forms or [[idea]]s. These forms are unchangeable and perfect, and are only comprehensible by the use of the intellect or understanding; i.e., a capacity of the mind that does not include [[perception|sense-perception]] or [[imagination]]. This division can also be found in [[Zoroaster|Zoroastrian]] philosophy, in which the dichotomy is referenced as the ''Minu'' (intelligence) and ''Giti'' (perceptual) worlds. The [[Zoroastrian]] ideal city, Shahrivar, also exhibits certain similarities with Plato's ''Republic''. The existence and direction of influence here is uncertain; while [[Zoroaster]] lived well before Plato, few of the earliest writings of Zoroastrianism survive unaltered.
[[دوتنه:PlatosCave.gif|thumb|390px|Illustrating Plato's allegory of the cave]]
In the ''Republic'' Books VI and VII, Plato uses a number of [[metaphor]]s to explain his metaphysical views: the [[Plato's metaphor of the sun|metaphor of the sun]], the well-known [[Plato's allegory of the cave|allegory of the cave]], and most explicitly, [[the divided line of Plato|the divided line]].
Taken together, these metaphors convey a complex, and, in places, difficult theory: there is something called [[The Form of the Good]] (often interpreted as Plato's god), which is the ultimate object of [[knowledge]] and which, as it were, sheds light on all the other forms (i.e., [[universal (metaphysics)|universals]]: [[abstraction|abstract]] [[kind (word)|kinds]] and [[attribute]]s), and from which all other forms "emanate". The Form of the Good does this in somewhat the same way as the sun sheds light on, or makes visible and "generates" things, in the perceptual world.
In the perceptual world, the particular objects we see around us bear only a dim resemblance to the more ultimately real forms of Plato's intelligible world; it is as if we are seeing shadows of cut-out shapes on the walls of a cave, which are mere representations of the [[reality]] outside the cave, illuminated by the sun.
We can imagine everything in the [[universe]] represented on a line of increasing reality; it is divided once in the middle, and then once again in each of the resulting parts. The first division represents that between the intelligible and the perceptual worlds. This is followed by a corresponding division in each of these worlds: the segment representing the perceptual world is divided into segments representing "real things" on the one hand, and shadows, reflections, and representations on the other. Similarly, the segment representing the intelligible world is divided into segments representing [[first principle]]s and most general forms, on the one hand, and more derivative, "reflected" forms, on the other. (See [[the divided line of Plato]])
Plato's metaphysics, and particularly its [[dualism]] between the intelligible and the perceptual, would inspire later [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] thinkers, such as [[Plotinus]] and [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]], and many other metaphysical realists. Although Platonist philosophers like Plotinus rejected Gnosticism (see Plotinus' ''[[Enneads]]''). One reason being the Gnostic vilification of nature and Plato's [[demiurge]] from '' [[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''. Plato also influenced [[Saint Justin Martyr]]. For more on Platonic realism in general, see [[Platonic realism]] and [[the Forms]].
Although this interpretation of Plato's writings (particularly the ''Republic'') has enjoyed immense popularity throughout the long history of Western philosophy, it is also possible to interpret his suggestions more conservatively, favoring a more epistemological than metaphysical reading of such famous metaphors as the Cave and the Divided Line. There are obvious parallels between the Cave allegory and the life of Plato's teacher [[Socrates]] (who was killed in his attempt to "open the eyes" of the Athenians). This example reveals the dramatic complexity that often lies under the surface of Plato's writing (remember that in the ''Republic'', it is Socrates who relates the story.).
== Epistemology ==
{{main | Platonic epistemology}}
Plato also had some influential opinions on the nature of [[knowledge]] and [[learning]] which he propounded in the '' [[Meno (Plato)|Meno]]'', which began with the question of whether [[virtue]] can be taught, and proceeded to expound the concepts of [[recollection]], learning as the discovery of pre-existing knowledge, and [[right opinion]], opinions which are correct but have no clear justification.
Plato stated that [[knowledge]] is essentially [[justified true belief]], an influential belief which informed future developments in epistemology. In the [[Theaetetus]], Plato argued that belief is to be distinguished from knowledge on account of justification. Many years later, [[Edmund Gettier]] famously demonstrated the problems of the justified true belief account of knowledge.
== دولت يا رياست ==
Plato's philosophical views had many [[society|societal]] implications, especially on the idea of an ideal [[state]] or government. There is some discrepancy between his early and later views. Some of the most famous doctrines are contained in the ''Republic'' during his middle period.
Plato asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul.
* ''Productive'' (Workers) — the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul.
* ''Protective'' (Warriors) — those who are adventurous, strong, brave, in love with danger; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul.
* ''Governing'' (Rulers) — those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few.
According to this model, the principles of [[Athens|Athenian]] [[democracy]] (as it existed in his day) are rejected as only a few are fit to rule. Instead of rhetoric and persuasion, Plato says reason and wisdom should govern. This does not equate to [[tyranny]], [[despotism]], or [[oligarchy]], however. As Plato puts it:
: "Until philosophers rule as kings or those who are now called kings and leading men genuinely and adequately philosophise, that is, until political power and philosophy entirely coincide, while the many natures who at present pursue either one exclusively are forcibly prevented from doing so, cities will have no rest from evils,... nor, I think, will the human race." (''Republic'' 473c-d)
Plato describes these "philosopher kings" as "those who love the sight of truth" (''Republic'' 475c) and supports the idea with the analogy of a captain and his ship or a doctor and his medicine. Sailing and health are not things that everyone is qualified to practice by nature. A large part of the ''Republic'' then addresses how the educational system should be set up to produce these philosopher kings.
However, it must be taken into account that the ideal city outlined in the ''Republic'' is qualified by Socrates as the ideal ''luxurious'' city, examined to determine how it is that injustice and justice grow in a city (''Republic'' 372e). According to Socrates, the "true" and "healthy" city is instead the one first outlined in book II of the ''Republic'', 369c-372d, containing farmers, craftsmen, merchants, and wage-earners, but lacking the guardian class of philosopher-kings as well as delicacies such as "perfumed oils, incense, prostitutes, and pastries", in addition to paintings, gold, ivory, couches, a multitude of occupations such as poets and hunters, and war.
== افلاطوني پوهه ==
[[دوتنه:Plato.png|thumb|"The safest general characterisation of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of footnotes to Plato." ([[Alfred North Whitehead]], ''Process and Reality'', 1929).]]
Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, [[Aristotle]], whose reputation during the Western [[Middle Ages]] so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". However, in the [[Byzantine Empire]], the study of Plato continued.
The Medieval scholastic philosophers did not have access to the works of Plato, nor the knowledge of [[Greek language|Greek]] needed to read them. Plato's original writings were essentially lost to Western civilization until they were brought from [[Constantinople]] in the century before its fall, by [[George Gemistos Plethon]]. Medieval scholars knew of Plato only through translations into [[Latin]] from the translations into [[Arabic language|Arabic]] by [[Iran|Persian]] and Arab scholars. These scholars not only translated the texts of the ancients, but expanded them by writing extensive [[commentary|commentaries]] and [[interpretation]]s on Plato's and [[Aristotle]]'s works (see [[Al-Farabi]], [[Avicenna]], [[Averroes]]).
Only in the [[Renaissance]], with the general resurgence of interest in classical civilization, did knowledge of Plato's philosophy become widespread again in the West. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with [[Scholasticism]] and fostered the flowering of the Renaissance, with the support of the Plato-inspired [[Lorenzo de Medici]], saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. By the [[19th century]], Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's.
Notable Western philosophers have continued to draw upon Plato's work since that time. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. It inspired the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, due to [[Gottlob Frege]] and his followers [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Alonzo Church]], and [[Alfred Tarski]], the last of whom summarised his approach by reversing Aristotle's famous declaration of sedition from the Academy: ''Inimicus Plato, sed magis inimica falsitas'' ("Plato is an enemy, but falsehood is yet a greater enemy"). [[Albert Einstein]] drew on Plato's understanding of an immutable reality that underlies the flux of appearances for his objections to the probabilistic picture of the physical universe propounded by [[Niels Bohr]] in his interpretation of [[quantum mechanics]]. Conversely, thinkers that diverged from [[ontology|ontological]] models and [[moral]] ideals in their own philosophy, have tended to disparage Platonism from more or less informed perspectives. Thus [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] attacked Plato's moral and political theories, [[Martin Heidegger]] argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of ''[[Being]]'', and [[Karl Popper]] argued in ''[[The Open Society and Its Enemies]]'' (1945) that Plato's proposal for a government system in the ''Republic'' was prototypically [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]].
== Bibliography ==
Plato's writings (most of them [[dialogue]]s) have been published in several fashions; this has led to several conventions regarding the naming and referencing of Plato's texts.
Those works ascribed to Plato that have a separate Wikipedia article can be found in [[:Category:Dialogues of Plato]]
=== By tetralogy ===
One tradition regarding the arrangement of Plato's texts is according to [[tetralogy|tetralogies]]. This scheme is ascribed by [[Diogenes Laertius]] to an ancient scholar and court astrologer to [[Tiberius]] named [[Thrasyllus]].
In the list below, works by Plato are marked (1) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (2) if scholars generally agree that Plato is ''not'' the author of the work. Unmarked works are assumed to have been written by Plato.
==== Tetralogies ====
* I. ''[[Euthyphro]]'', '' [[Apology (Plato)|(The) Apology (of Socrates)]]'', ''[[Crito]]'', ''[[Phaedo]]''
* II. ''[[Cratylus]]'', '' [[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theaetetus]]'', '' [[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]'', '' [[Politicus|Statesman]]''
* III. '' [[Parmenides (dialogue)|Parmenides]]'', ''[[Philebus]]'', '' [[Symposium (Plato dialogue)|(The) Symposium]]'', '' [[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]''
* IV. '' [[Alcibiades (dialogues)|First Alcibiades]]'' (1), '' [[Alcibiades (dialogues)|Second Alcibiades]]'' (2), '' [[Hipparchus (dialogue)|Hipparchus]]'' (2), '' [[Rival Lovers|(The) (Rival) Lovers]]'' (2)
* V. ''[[Theages]]'' (2), '' [[Charmides (dialogue)|Charmides]]'', '' [[Laches (dialogue)|Laches]]'', '' [[Lysis (dialogue)|Lysis]]''
* VI. '' [[Euthydemus (dialogue)|Euthydemus]]'', '' [[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]'', '' [[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]'', ''[[Meno]]''
* VII. '' [[Hippias (dialogues)|(Greater) Hippias (major)]]'' (1), '' [[Hippias (dialogues)|(Lesser) Hippias (minor)]]'', '' [[Ion (dialogue)|Ion]]'', ''[[Menexenus]]''
* VIII. ''[[Clitophon]]'' (1), '' [[Republic (dialogue)|(The) Republic]]'', '' [[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'', '' [[Critias (dialogue)|Critias]]''
* IX. '' [[Minos (dialogue)|Minos]]'' (2), '' [[Laws (dialogue)|(The) Laws]]'', ''[[Epinomis]]'' (2), '' [[Letters (Plato)|Letters]]'' (1)
==== Works not in tetralogies ====
The remaining works were transmitted under Plato's name, most of them already considered spurious in antiquity:
* ''[[Axiochus]]'' (2), '' [[Definitions (Plato)|Definitions]]'' (2), '' [[Demodocus (dialogue)|Demodocus]]'' (2), '' [[Epigrams (Plato)|Epigrams]]'', ''[[Eryxias]]'' (2), '' [[Halcyon (dialogue)|Halcyon]]'' (2), ''[[On Justice]]'' (2), ''[[On Virtue]]'' (2), '' [[Sisyphus (dialogue)|Sisyphus]]'' (2)
=== Stephanus pagination ===
The usual system for making unique references to sections of the text by Plato derives from a [[16th century]] edition of Plato's works by [[Henri Estienne|Henricus Stephanus]]. An overview of Plato's writings according to this system can be found in the [[Stephanus pagination]] article.
=== Chronology ===
The exact order in which Plato's dialogues were written is not known, nor is the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. However, there is enough information internal to the dialogues to form a rough chronology. The dialogues are normally grouped into three fairly distinct periods, with a few of them considered transitional works, and some just difficult to place.
Many of the positions in this ordering are still highly disputed.
==== پخواني ډيالوګونه ====
Socrates figures in all of these, and they are considered the most faithful representations of the historical Socrates; hence they are also called the [[Socratic dialogues]]. Most of them consist of Socrates discussing a subject, often an ethical one (friendship, piety) with a friend or with someone presumed to be an expert on it. Through a series of questions he will show that they don't apparently understand it at all. This period also includes several pieces surrounding the trial and execution of Socrates.
* '' [[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]''
* ''[[Crito]]''
* '' [[Charmides (dialogue)|Charmides]]''
* '' [[Laches (dialogue)|Laches]]''
* '' [[Lysis (dialogue)|Lysis]]''
* ''[[Euthyphro]]''
* ''[[Menexenus]]''
* ''[[Lesser Hippias]]''
* '' [[Ion (dialogue)|Ion]]''
The following are variously considered transitional or middle period dialogues:
* '' [[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]''
* '' [[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]''
* ''[[Meno]]''
=== منځني ډيالوګونه ===
Late in the early dialogues Plato's Socrates actually begins supplying answers to some of the questions he asks, or putting forth positive doctrines. This is generally seen as the first appearance of Plato's own views. The first of these, that goodness is wisdom and that no one does evil willingly, was perhaps Socrates' own view. What becomes most prominent in the middle dialogues is the idea that knowledge comes of grasping unchanging forms or essences, paired with the attempts to investigate such essences. The immortality of the soul, and specific doctrines about justice, truth, and beauty, begin appearing here. The [[Symposium (Plato dialogue)|Symposium]] and the [[Republic (dialogue)|Republic]] are considered the centrepieces of Plato's middle period.
* '' [[Euthydemus (dialogue)|Euthydemus]]''
* ''[[Cratylus]]''
* ''[[Phaedo]]''
* '' [[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]''
* '' [[Symposium (Plato dialogue)|Symposium]]''
* '' [[Republic (dialogue)|Republic]]''
* '' [[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theaetetus]]''
* '' [[Parmenides (dialogue)|Parmenides]]''
==== وروستي ډيالوګونه ====
The ''Parmenides'' presents a series of criticisms of the theory of Forms which are widely taken to indicate Plato's abandonment of the doctrine. Some recent publications (e.g., Meinwald (1991)) have challenged this characterisation. In most of the remaining dialogues the theory is either absent or at least appears under a different guise in discussions about kinds or classes of things (the ''Timaeus'' may be an important, and hence controversially placed, exception). Socrates is either absent or a minor figure in the discussion. An apparently new method for doing dialectic known as "collection and division" is also featured, most notably in the ''Sophist'' and ''Politicus'', explicitly for the first time in the ''Phaedrus'', and possibly in the ''Philebus''. A basic description of collection and division would go as follows: interlocutors attempt to discern the similarities and differences among things in order to get clear idea about what they in fact are. One understanding, suggested in some passages of the ''Sophist'', is that this is what philosophy is always in the business of doing, and is doing even in the early dialogues.
The late dialogues are also an important place to look for Plato's mature thought on most of the issues dealt with in the earlier dialogues. There is much work still to be done by scholars on the working out of what these views are. The later works are agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy. On the whole they are more sober and logical than earlier works, but may hold out the promise of steps towards a solution to problems which were systematically laid out in prior works.
* '' [[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]''
* '' [[Politicus|Statesman]]''
* ''[[Philebus]]''
* '' [[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''
* '' [[Critias (dialogue)|Critias]]''
* '' [[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]''
=== Loeb Classical Library ===
[[James Loeb]] provided a very popular edition of Plato's works, still in print in the [[21st century]]: see [[Loeb Classical Library#Plato]] for how Plato's works were named in Loeb's publications.
{{academia
| teachers=[[Socrates]]
| students=[[Aristotle]]</br>[[Theophrastus]]
}}
== دا هم وګورۍ ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [[Wikisource:el:Πλάτων | Greek texts]]
* [[List of publications in philosophy#Western philosophy|Important publications in Western philosophy]]
* [[Mitchell Miller]]
* [[Alexander Nehamas]]
* [[Platonic love]]
== Footnotes ==
* {{ent | 1 | Plato1}} Plato, ''Phaedrus'', "the living word of knowledge which has a soul, and of which the written word is properly no more than an image"
* {{ent | 2 | Plato2}} Plato, ''Seventh Epistle'', "Therefore every man of worth, when dealing with matters of worth, will be far from exposing them to ill feeling and misunderstanding among men by committing them to writing." [http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/seventh_letter.html]
== References ==
* {{cite book | author=Cooper, John M. & Hutchinson, D. S. (Eds.) | title=Plato: Complete Works | publisher=Hackett Publishing Co., Inc | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-87220-349-2}}
* {{cite book | author=Durant, Will | title=The Story of Philosophy | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=1926 | id=ISBN 0-671-69500-2}}
* {{cite book | author=Hamilton, Edith & Cairns, Huntington (Eds.) | title=The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters | publisher=Princeton Univ. Press | year=1961 | id=ISBN 0-691-09718-6}}
* {{cite book | author=Jackson, Roy | title=Plato: A Beginner's Guide | publisher=London: Hoder & Stroughton | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-340-80385-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Kraut, Richard (Ed.) | title=The Cambridge Companion to Plato | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1993 | id=ISBN 0-521-43610-9}}
* {{cite book | author=Melchert, Norman | title=The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy | publisher=McGraw Hill | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-19-517510-7}}
* {{cite book | author=Meinwald, Constance Chu | title=Plato's Parmenides | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-19-506445-3 }}
* [[Oxford University Press]] publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the ''[[Oxford Classical Texts]]'' series, and some translations in the ''Clarendon Plato Series''.
* [[Harvard University Press]] publishes the hardbound series '' [[Loeb Classical Library#Plato|Loeb Classical Library]]'', containing Plato's works in [[Greek language|Greek]], with English translations on facing pages.
* [http://www.lesbelleslettres.com Les Belles Lettres] also publishes Plato's complete works in Greek with French translations.
* {{cite book | author=Smith, William. | title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology | publisher=University of Michigan/Online version | year=1867 — original }}
== External links ==
{{commons | Plato}}
* {{gutenberg author | id=Plato | name=Plato}}
** [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/authrec?fk_authors=93 Works by Plato] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
** [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/authrec?fk_authors=688 Spurious and doubtful works] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
* {{PerseusAuthor | Plato}}
* [http://www.learnoutloud.com/Content/Topic-Pages/Plato-Out-Loud/47 Plato Audio Bibliography]
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato/ Plato]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-ethics/ Plato's Ethics]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-friendship/ Friendship and Eros]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-metaphysics/ Middle Period Metaphysics and Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-utopia/ Plato on Utopia]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-rhetoric/ Rhetoric and Poetry]
* Other articles
** [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/ancient-greece/guthrie-plato.asp Excerpt from W.K.C. Guthrie, ''A History of Greek Philosophy, vol. IV, Plato: the man and his dialogues, earlier period'', Cambridge University Press, 1989, pp. 8-38]
** [http://plato-dialogues.org/plato.htm Website on Plato and his works: Plato and his dialogues by Bernard Suzanne]
[[وېشنيزه:347 BC deaths]]
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