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'''پيرو'''، په رسمي چار کې '''د پيرو جمهوريت''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Perú'' يا ''República del Perú'' [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'pu.βli.ka del pe'ɾu]}}, [[Quechua language|Quechua]]: ''Piruw''), د [[سوېلي امريکا]] په [[لوېديځ]] کې پروت يو هېواد دی چې په سهېل کې د [[اېکوادور]] او [[کولمبيا]] سره، [[ختيځ]] کې د [[برازيل]] سره، په سوېل ختيځ کې د [[بولېويا]] سره او په لوېديځ کې د [[چيلي]] هېواد سره ګډې پولي لري. د دې هېواد په لوېديځ کې آرام سمندر د دغه هېواد لوېديځه پوله جوړوي
In addition to being known as the cradle of the [[Inca empire]], Peru harbors many [[amerindians|indigenous ethnic groups]], making it a major historical and cultural site.
== تاريخ ==
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=== پخوانی فرهڼ ===
Archaeological evidence indicates that hunters and gatherers have inhabited Peru for about 20,000 years, based on evidence present in sites located in the caves of [[Piquimachay]] ([[Ayacucho]]), [[Chivateros]], [[Lauricocha Culture|Lauricocha]], [[Paijan]], and [[Toquepala]]. Some of the oldest identifiable cultures appeared ca. [[6000 BCE]] in the coastal provinces of [[Chilca]] and [[Paracas]] and in the highlands province of [[Callejon de Huaylas]].
Over the following 3000 years humans became [[agrarian]], judging from sites such as [[Kotosh]] and [[Huaca Prieta]]. Cultivation of plants such as [[Maize|corn]] and [[Gossypium|cotton]] (Gossypium Barbadense) began, as well as the domestication of animals. Inhabitants practiced domestic crafts such as [[Spinning (textiles)|spinning]] and [[knitting]] of cotton and wool, [[Basket weaving|basketry]] and [[pottery]]. Some of the more advanced Andean civilizations that appeared in [[900 BCE]] were:
* [[Caral]]
* [[Chavín culture|Chavin]] – the Peruvian Mother Culture, according to [[Julio C. Tello]]
* [[Paracas culture|Paracas]]
* [[Mochica Culture|Mochica]]
* [[Ica-Nazca culture|Nazca]]
* [[Tiwanaku|Tiahuanaco]]
* [[Huari Culture|Wari]]
* [[Chimú Culture|Chimu]]
These cultures developed relatively advanced techniques of [[Tillage|cultivation]], gold and silver work, [[pottery]], [[metallurgy]] and [[knitting]]. Around [[700 BCE]] they also developed systems of social organization that were the precursors of the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] civilization.
Minor civilizations on the edge of the eastern Andes that were largely integrated into the Incan empire include:
* Malbecs
* Hu-Tyus
* Punos
* Mari-Tiu-Tie
* Olbraqeus
Not all Andean cultures were willing to offer their loyalty to the Incas as they expanded their empire, and many were openly hostile. The people of the [[Chachapoyas culture]] were later conquered and integrated into the Inca Empire, albeit with much difficulty.
=== The Incas ===
''Main article: [[Inca Empire]]''
[[دوتنه:Representación_del_Zapa_Inca.jpg|thumb|200px|The Inca, ruler of the Tahuantinsuyo]]
The [[Inca Empire|Incas]] created the most vast and powerful empire of [[Pre-Columbian|pre-Columbian America]]. The Tahuantinsuyo reached its greatest extension at the beginning of [[16th century|XVI century]]. It dominated a territory that included from north to south [[Ecuador]], part of [[Colombia]], the northern half of [[Chile]] and the north-east part of [[Argentina]]; and from west to east, from [[Bolivia]] to the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazonian forests]].
The empire originated from a tribe based in [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]], which became the capital. Pachacuti was the first ruler to considerably expand the boundaries of the [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]] state. His offspring later ruled an empire by violent and peaceful conquest.
In [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]], the royal city was created to resemble a [[puma]]; the head, the main royal structure, formed what is now known as Sacsayhuaman. The Empire's administrative, political and military center was located in [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]]. The empire was divided into four quarters: Chinchasuyu, Antisuyu, Contisuyu and Collasuyu.
[[Quechua]] was the official language, imposed on the citizens. It was the language of a tribe neighbouring the original tribe of the empire. Conquered populations—tribes, kingdoms, states and cities—were allowed to practice their own religions and lifestyles, but had to recognize Inca cultural practices as superior to their own. Inti, the sun god, was to be worshipped as one of the most important gods of the empire. His representation on earth was the "Inca", the Emperor.
The [[Inca Empire|Tahuantinsuyo]] was organized in “señoríos” (dominions) with a stratified society, in which the ruler was the Inca. It was also supported by an economy based on the collective property of the land. In fact, the [[Inca Empire]] was conceived like an ambitious and audacious civilizing project, based on a mythical thought, in which the harmony of the relationships between the human being, nature and [[Inca mythology|Gods]] was truly essential.
Many strange and interesting customs were observed, for example the extravagant feast of Inti Raymi which gave thanks to Inti, and the young women who comprised the Virgins of the Sun, sacrificial virgins devoted to the sun god, Inti. The empire, for being so large, also had an impressive transportation system of roads to all points of the empire called the [[Inca road system|Inca Trail]], and [[chasquis]], message carriers who relayed information from anywhere in the empire to Cuzco.
From the European rationalist perspective, the [[Inca Empire]] has been seen like the utopia concretion. Nevertheless, this pragmatic interpretation tends to forget the destructive effects that the haughty collision between two antithetic [[World view|Weltanschauungs]] produced in the harmony of the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] [[World view|Weltanschauung]]. Its spectacular collapse under a group of Spanish soldiers has been seen as a logical consequence of the Spanish technological superiority, that took advantage of the Inca civil war triggered off by two pretenders to the throne.
=== Colonial Peru (Spanish rule) ===
''Main article: [[Viceroyalty of Peru|The Viceroyalty of Peru]]''
[[دوتنه:Pizarro_in_Lima.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Pizarro and his followers in Lima in 1535]]
[[Francisco Pizarro]] and his brothers were attracted by the news of a rich and fabulous kingdom. In [[1531]], they arrived in the country, which they called Peru. (The forms ''Biru'', ''Pirú'', and ''Berú'' are also seen in early records.) According to [[Raul Porras Barrenechea]], Peru is not a [[Quechua]]n nor [[Caribbean Spanish|Caribbean]] word, but [[Indo-Hispanic languages|Indo-Hispanic]] or hybrid.
At that moment, the [[Inca Empire]] was sunk in a five years civil war between two princes, [[Huáscar]] and [[Atahualpa]]. Taking advantage of this, [[Pizarro]] carried out a “[[coup d’état]]”. On [[November 16]], [[1532]], while the natives were in a celebration in [[Cajamarca]], the Spanish took the [[Atahualpa|Inca Atahualpa]] prisoner by surprise, causing a great consternation among the natives and conditioning the future course of the fight. When Huascar was murdered, the Spanish tried and convicted Atahualpa of the crime, executing him by strangulation.
For a period, [[Pizarro]] maintained the authority of the [[Inca]], recognizing [[Tupac Huallpa]] as the [[Inca]] after Atahualpa's death. But the conqueror’s abuses made this fiction all too apparent. Spanish domination consolidated itself as successive indigenous rebellions were bloodily repressed. The situation was complicated by a power struggle between the [[Pizarro]] family and [[Diego de Almagro]]. A long civil war developed, from which Pizarros emerged victorious.
Despite this, the Spaniards did not neglect the colonizing process. Its most significant act was the foundation of [[Lima]] in January, [[1535]], from which the political and administrative institutions were organized. The necessity of consolidating Spanish royal authority over these territories, led to the creation of a [[Audiencia|Real Audiencia]] (Royal Audience). In [[1542]], the Spanish created the [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Viceroyalty of New Castilla]], that shortly after would be called [[Viceroyalty of Peru]]. Nevertheless, the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] was not organized until the arrival of the Viceroy [[Francisco de Toledo]] in [[1572]].
[[Francisco de Toledo|Toledo]] ended the indigenous state of [[Vilcabamba, Peru|Vilcabamba]], executing the [[Tupac Amaru|Inca Tupac Amaru]]. He also promoted economic development from the commercial monopoly and mineral extraction, mainly from argentiferous mines of [[Potosí]]. He took advantage of the [[Inca]] institution called “[[Mita (Inca)|mita]]” to put the native communities under a cruel economic enslavement.
The [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] became the richest and most powerful Spanish [[Viceroyalty]] of America in the [[XVIII century]]. The creation of the Viceroyalties of [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]] and [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|Rio de la Plata]] (at the expense of its territory), the commerce exemptions that moved the commercial center from [[Lima]] to [[Caracas]] and [[Buenos Aires]], and the fall of the mining and textile production determined the progressive decay of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]]. These events created a favorable climate so that the emancipating ideas had an effect on the [[Spanish Criollo peoples|Creoles]].
=== د خپلواکۍ جنګونه ===
[[دوتنه:Smartin.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Don Jose de San Martin proclaimed the independence of Peru on July 28, 1821.]]
''Main article: [[The Independence of Peru|Independence of Peru]]''
The economic crisis favored the indigenous rebellion from [[1780]] to [[1781]]. This rebellion was headed by [[Túpac Amaru II|Tupac Amaru II]]. At this time, the [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Napoleonic invasion]] of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the degradation of the Royal power took place. The Creole rebellion of [[Huánuco (Department of Peru)|Huánuco]] arose in [[1812]] and the rebellion of [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]] arose between [[1814]] and [[1816]]. These rebellions defended the liberal principles sanctioned by the [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|Constitution of Cadiz]] of [[1812]].
Supported by the power of the Creole oligarchy, the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] became the last redoubt of the Spanish dominion in [[South America]]. This Viceroyalty succumbed after the decisive continental campaigns of [[Simón Bolívar|Simón Bolivar]] and [[José de San Martín|Jose de San Martin]]. [[José de San Martín|San Martin]], who had displaced the realists of Chile after the magnificent battle of the Andes, and who had disembarked in [[Paracas Peninsula|Paracas]] in [[1819]], proclaimed the independence of Peru in [[Lima (Department of Peru)|Lima]] on [[July 28]], [[1821]]. Three years later, the Spanish dominion was eliminated definitively after the battles of [[Battle of Junín|Junín]] and [[Battle of Ayacucho|Ayacucho]]. Its first elected president, however, was not in power until [[1827]].
=== Early republican period ===
The conflict of interests that faced different sectors of the Creole society and the particular ambitions of the [[caudillo]]s, made the organization of the country excessively difficult. Only three [[civilian]]s: [[Manuel Pardo]], [[Nicolás de Piérola]] and [[Francisco García Calderón]] could accede to the presidency in the first seventy-five years of independent life.
After the splitting of the Alto Peru in [[1815]], the [[Bolivia|Republic of Bolivia]] was created. In [[1828]] Peru fought a war against [[Gran Colombia]] over control of [[Jaén]] and [[Maynas Province|Maynas]] territory called the [[Gran Colombia-Peru War]]. After the war, Peru retained control over the territory. This was its first international conflict as a new nation. In [[1837]], the [[Peru-Bolivian Confederation]] was also created but, it was dissolved two years later due to the [[Chile]]an military intervention. The Peru-Bolivian Confederation was lead by Andrés de Santa Cruz.
Between these years, political unrest continued, and the Army was an important political force. Peru initiated a period of political and economic stability in the middle of the [[XIX century]], under the General [[Ramón Castilla|Ramon Castilla]]'s caudillista hegemony. The complete depletion of the [[guano]], main foreign currency source, and the [[war of the Pacific]] with [[Chile]] because of the dispute of the [[saltpeter]] deposits of [[Tarapacá Region|Tarapacá]], caused the economic bankruptcy and activated the social and political agitation of the country.
In 1864, Spain organised a so-called naval science expedition, whose main objective was to recover control of its former colonies. Spain started occupying the Chinchas Islands and arresting Peruvian citizens in 1864, claiming that Spaniards were mistreated on Peruvian ground. After that, the Spaniard Fleet destroyed the Chilean harbour of Valparaiso. Chile, Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru signed an alliance to defeat Spain by the end of December 1865. The Spanish Fleet tried to destroy the harbour of Callao, but failed. Main naval battles fought were the Battle of Papudo in 1865, Battle of Abtao and Battle of Callao in 1866.
=== War and reconstruction ===
In 1879 Peru entered the [[War of the Pacific]] which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Chile declared war on April 5, 1879. Almost five years of war ended with the toss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica, in the Atacama region.
After the war, an extraordinary effort of reconstruction began. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. The [[Civilista Party|civilist movement]] headed by [[Nicolás de Piérola|Nicolas de Piérola]] opposed the [[Caudillo|military caudillismo]] that arose from the warlike defeat and the economic collapse. He arrived to the power with the [[1895]] revolution. The reformist character of [[Nicolás de Piérola|Pierola]]’s dictatorship had continuity in [[Augusto B. Leguía|Augusto B. Leguía’s]].
During [[Augusto B. Leguía|Leguia’s]] government periods ([[1908]]-[[1912]] and [[1919]]-[[1930]], this last one was well-known as “the Oncenio” – The eleventh), the entrance of American capitals became general and the [[bourgeoisie]] was favored. This politics along with the increase of the foreign capital dependency, contributed to generate opposition focuses between the landowner oligarchy as much as the most progressive sectors of the Peruvian society.
In 1929 Peru and Chile signed a final peace treaty, [[Treaty of Ancon]] by which Tacna returned to Peru and Peru yielded permanently the rich provinces of Arica and Tarapaca, but kept certain rights to the port activities in Arica and decisions of what Chile can do on those territories.
After the world-wide crisis of [[1929]], numerous brief governments followed one another. The [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance|APRA party]] had the opportunity to cause system reforms by means of political actions, but it was not successful. By this time, it begins a sudden population growth and an urbanization increase. During World War II, Peru was the first South American nation to align with the United States and its allies against Germany and Japan.
Between these two periods of time, it should be underlined the constitution of the [[American Popular Revolutionary Alliance]] (APRA). This is a nationalistic movement, populist and anti-imperialist headed by [[Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre|Victor Raul Haya de la Torre]] in [[1924]]. The [[communist party]] was created four years later and it was led by [[José Carlos Mariátegui|Jose C. Mariategui]].
=== Modern politics ===
[[دوتنه:Palace_of_Government.jpg|thumb|220px|left|[[Government Palace (Peru)|Casa de Pizarro]], Peru's Government Palace in [[Lima]]]]
General [[Manuel A. Odría]] lead a dictatorial military government that lasted for eight years ([[1948]]–[[1956]]). Inequitable land tenure (''latifundia'') and wide-spread social marginalization provided the impetus in the early 1960s for the emergence of Peru's armed left.
Meanwhile, the reformist attempt of [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry|Fernando Belaunde Terry’s]] first government failed to address the structural nature of social pathology, which continues to plague Peru. Belaunde's Government embraced numerous projects, including the ''Carretera Marginal de la Selva'', a highway linking Chiclayo on the Pacific coast with previously "isolated" northern regions of [[Amazonas Region|Amazonas]], [[San Martín Region|San Martín]] and [[Loreto]]. However, Belaunde was saddled with the popular perception that he was too close to foreign capital, moreover his economic decisions lead to the [[devaluation]] of the [[Sol (currency)|sol]], and generalized unrest - both in the countryside and in Lima.
In [[1968]], General [[Juan Velasco Alvarado|Juan Velasco Alvarado’s]] lead a coup d'etat replacing the Belaunde government. Under the title of "President of the Revolutionary Government", the nationalist and left-leaning tone of [[Juan Velasco Alvarado|Velasco]] was manifest by his government's promulgation of Peru's first substantial agrarian reform, which was aimed at stemming the tide of civil unrest, particularly in the Andes where land ownership patterns were profoundly inequitable. Velasco's government is credited with promoting peasant's rights, including the recognition of [[Quechua]] as a national language, communal land ownership, and populist social mobilization (SINAMOS).
Invariably, this gave rise to conflict with Peru's small elite, those with foreign capital interests and local [[oligarchs]]. Velasco's failing health, changed global conditions and poor planning resulted in a counter-reaction to Velasco's nationalist program. In 1975 General [[Francisco Morales Bermúdez|Francisco Morales Bermúdez’s]] lead a coup d’etat, replacing Velasco as President. Morales Bermúdez's regime was characterized by a return to elite oriented politics, which did little to stem civil unrest from a populace largely excluded from the social benefits of ''national'' citizenship.
Frustrated by their inability to "rule" Peru, the Peruvian Armed Forces were forced to call for elections. [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] was re-elected in [[1980]] to the Presidency. However, by the end of his term in [[1985]], Peru yet again faced a crisis that has gripped Peru for the past two decades: mounting [[external debt]] has stymied the actions of successive Peruvian governments. Moreover, Belaúnde was impotent in halting the progressive impoverishment of the vast majority of population, and incapable of halting the massive increase in [[Illegal drug trade|drug trafficking]] operations, or the [[insurgent]] revolts of the [[Shining Path]] (''Sendero Luminoso'') and the [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement|Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] (MRTA).
With much optimism, the leader of Peru's APRA Party, [[Alan García|Alan Garcia]] was elected President in [[1985]]. Like his predecessor, García relinquished power leaving the country in a worse state than when he entered office. The Peruvian economy was crippled by [[hyperinflation]], isolated from the international financial community, and was in the throes of a bloody civil-war pitting the [[Shining Path]] and the [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement|Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] against the State and its allies. In a climate of generalized chaos, terror and political violence, the electoral victory of [[Alberto Fujimori]] took place in [[1990]], when the virtually unknown University Rector narrowly defeated the famous Peruvian novelist and cultural icon [[Mario Vargas Llosa]]. After a promising start, García left power in 1990.
Two years after he was elected, President [[Alberto Fujimori]] summarily closed [[Congress]] and convened a [[referendum]] for elaborating a new [[Peruvian Constitutional Crisis of 1992|Constitution (1992).]] Credited by sectors of Peruvian society and the international financial community with restoring [[macroeconomic]] "stability" to Peru after the turbulent Garcia years, Fujimori was widely criticized for what his opponents describe as an [[authoritarian]] regime, aided by the now imprisoned [[Vladimiro Montesinos]], the former head of SIN.
Following a controversial third "re-election", mounting corruption, wide-spread political violence and gross human rights violations, Fujimori was forced to resign the Presidency of Peru. Fujimori then requested political asylum in [[Japan]] on the grounds of his [[Japan]]ese citizenship.
In the turmoil following Fujimori's precipitous fall from power, [[Valentín Paniagua]] was selected as the ''transitional'' President. Following a hotly contested election,[[Alejandro Toledo]] became President (2001-2006), narrowly defeating [[Alan García]] (2006). In [[2006]], [[Alan García]] was once again elected President, defeating nationalist candidate [[Ollanta Humala]].
== Politics of Peru ==
{{main|Politics of Peru}}
The formal politics of Peru takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Peru]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Congress of Peru|Congress]]. The [[Judiciary]] is supposed to be independent of the executive and the legislature.
== اداري وېشنې ==
{{main|Subdivisions of Peru}}
[[دوتنه:Perú · (lliw).png|left|Regions of Peru]]
Peru is divided into 25 [[Regions of Peru|regions]] (''regiones''; sg. – ''región''), and subdivided into 180 [[Provinces of Peru|provinces]], and 1,747 [[Districts of Peru|districts]].
The [[Lima Province]] is located in the central coast of the country, is unique in that it doesn't belong to any of the twenty-five regions. The city of [[Lima]] is located in this province, which is also known as ''Lima Metropolitana'' ([[Lima Metropolitan Area]]).
Until [[2002]], Peru was divided into 24 [[Department (subnational entity)|departments]] (''departamentos'') plus one constitutional province (Callao), and many people still use this term when referring to today's regions, although it is now obsolete.
{| border="0"
| colspan="3" |The [[Regions of Peru|regions]] include:|| rowspan="8" width="90" style="vertical-align: top;" |
|-
| width="30%" | <small>1</small> [[Amazonas Region|Amazonas]] || width="30%" | <small>9</small> [[Huánuco Region|Huánuco]] || width="30%" | <small>17</small> [[Moquegua Region|Moquegua]]
|-
| <small>2</small> [[Ancash Region|Ancash]] || <small>10</small> [[Ica Region|Ica]] || <small>18</small> [[Pasco Region|Pasco]]
|-
| <small>3</small> [[Arequipa Region|Arequipa]] || <small>11</small> [[Junín Region|Junín]] || <small>19</small> [[Piura Region|Piura]]
|-
| <small>4</small> [[Apurímac Region|Apurímac]] || <small>12</small> [[La Libertad Region|La Libertad]] || <small>20</small> [[Puno Region|Puno]]
|-
| <small>5</small> [[Ayacucho Region|Ayacucho]] || <small>13</small> [[Lambayeque Region|Lambayeque]] || <small>21</small> [[San Martín Region|San Martín]]
|-
| <small>6</small> [[Cajamarca Region|Cajamarca]] || <small>14</small> [[Lima Region|Lima]] || <small>22</small> [[Tacna Region|Tacna]]
|-
| <small>7</small> [[Cusco Region|Cusco]] || <small>15</small> [[Madre de Dios Region|Madre de Dios]] || <small>23</small> [[Tumbes Region|Tumbes]]
|-
| <small>8</small> [[Huancavelica Region|Huancavelica]] || <small>16</small> [[Loreto Region|Loreto]] || <small>24</small> [[Ucayali Region|Ucayali]]
|-
|}
=== ښارونه ===
[[دوتنه:Peru-CIA_WFB_Map.png|thumb|left|300px|Map of Peru]]
The primary urban centers include:
* [[Lima]] (the capital and the primary economic and cultural center)
* [[Arequipa]]
* [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]]
* [[Chiclayo]]
* [[Callao]] (the largest port)
* [[Cusco]] (the modern capital of the ancient [[Inca Empire]])
* [[Piura]]
* [[Tacna]]
* [[Ica]]
* [[Puno]]
* [[Chimbote]]
* [[Huancayo]]
* [[Huacho]]
* [[Cajamarca]]
* [[Pucallpa]]
* [[Iquitos]]
* [[Yurimaguas]]
* [[Tarapoto]]
* [[Moyobamba]]
== Geography ==
[[دوتنه:Peru_meander1.jpg|180px|thumb|left|Peruvian [[Amazon Basin]]]]
{{main|Geography of Peru}}
Peru's territory has an area of 1,285,216 km². It is bordered by [[Ecuador]] and [[Colombia]] on the north, [[Brazil]] and [[Bolivia]] to the east, and finally [[Chile]] and [[Bolivia]] to the south. To the west lies the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Its population has more than 27 million inhabitants that speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]], with others bilingual in [[Quechua]] or [[Aymara language|Aymara]] and other native languages.
Eastern Peru consists mostly of the moist tropical jungles of the [[Amazon Rainforest]], the largest on Earth. In the southeast along the border with [[Bolivia]] lies [[Lake Titicaca]] — the highest navigable lake in the world. The [[Altiplano]] plateau is a dry basin located along the slopes of the Andes in southeastern Peru. Along the border with Chile, the [[Atacama Desert]] is the driest place on the planet.
[[دوتنه:ValleColca_lou.jpg|180px|thumb|right|[[Colca Canyon|Valle del Colca]], [[Arequipa]]]]
The [[Pacific Ocean|Peruvian Sea]] is home to a large amount and variety of fish life. The [[Sechura Desert]] is located in northwestern Peru along the Pacific coastline.
The main rivers of Peru include the [[Ucayali]], [[Marañón River (Peru)|Marañón]], [[Amazon River|Amazon]] (which is formed by the confluence of the Marañón and the Ucayali), [[Içá|Putumayo]], [[Pastaza]], [[Napo River|Napo]], [[Jurua]], and the [[Purus]].
[[دوتنه:Punta Sal, Peru.jpg|thumb|left|180px|View of the beach in [[Contralmirante Villar Province|Punta Sal]]]]
=== Physiographic regions ===
When the Spanish arrived, they divided Peru (because of political reasons) into three main regions: the [[Coastal]] region, which is bounded by the [[Pacific Ocean]]; the [[Highland (geography)|Highlands]], that is located in the [[Andes|Andean Heights]], and the [[Jungle]], which is located on the [[Amazon Basin|Amazonian Jungle]]. These words are still used in Peru. However, [[Javier Pulgar Vidal]], a geographer who studied the biogeographic reality of the Peruvian territory for a long time, proposed the creation of eight Natural Regions. In 1941, the III General Assembly of the [[Pan-American Institute of Geography and History]] approved this motion.
[[دوتنه:Peruvian_Physiographic_Regions_1.png|thumbnail|320px|Peruvian Physiographic Regions]]
These eight Peruvian regions are:
* [[Chala|Chala or Coast]] (a subtropical desert in the central and southern coast and a changing tropical ''savanna'' in the north coast)
* [[Yunga]] (consisting of subtropical arid fertile valleyes)
* [[Quechua (Geography)|Quechua]]
* [[Suni (Geography)|Suni or Jalca]]
* [[Puna (Geography)|Puna]]
* [[Janca]]
* [[Rupa-Rupa|Rupa - Rupa or High Jungle]]
* [[Omagua|Omagua or Low Jungle]]
=== Natural and cultural Peruvian heritage ===
The [[Constitution of Peru|Peruvian constitution]] of 1993 recognised the [[natural resources]] and [[ecosystem]] variety of its country as a heritage. In 1900, the National System of Natural Areas that are protected by the Peruvian Government (SINANPE) was created. This entity depends on the National Institute of Natural Resources (INRENA). They also created a map of protection and preservation of historical – cultural heritage and nature.
This map has 49 natural areas (10% of the country surface) that are preserved by the [[Peruvian Government|Government]]: 8 national parks, 8 national reservations, 6 national sanctuaries, 3 historical sanctuaries, 4 national forests, 6 protection forests, 1 communal reservation, 2 hunting enclosed lands and 11 reserved zones.
National Parks are places where the wild [[flora]] and [[fauna]] are protected and preserved. Natural resources exploitation and human settlements are forbidden.
==== National parks ====
* [[Cutervo National Park|Cutervo]] It is the oldest Peruvian National Park. It was created in 1961 and is located in [[Cajamarca (Department of Peru)|Cajamarca]]. There are many caves in this park such as San Andres Cave, where the [[Oilbird|guacharo]] lives - a bird in danger of extinction.
* [[Tingo Maria National Park|Tingo Maria]] It is located in [[Huánuco (Department of Peru)|Huanuco]]. Its principal attraction is the [[Cueva de las Lechuzas]] ([[Burrowing Owl|Owl]] Cave) where the [[Oilbird|guacharos]] live.
* [[Manú National Park|Manu]] It is located in [[Madre de Dios (Department of Peru)|Madre de Dios]] and [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]]. Its the most representative area of the Amazon biodiversity. In 1977, [[UNESCO]] recognised it as a Reserve of Biosphere and in 1987, it was pronounced as Natural Heritage of Humanity.
* [[Huascarán National Park|Huascaran]] It is located in [[Ancash (Department of Peru)|Ancash]]. It was also pronounced as Natural Heritage of Humanity and recognised as Reserve of Biosphere Core. The highest snow-covered mountain is here (which name is also [[Huascarán|Huascaran]] and has 6 768 m.). This park is the habitat of the [[Puya Raimondi (Puya raimondii)|Puya Raimondi]], [[Puma|the American panther or puma]], the [[jaguar]], the [[llama]], the [[guanaco]], the [[Marsh Deer]], the [[Brazilian Tapir|Peruvian tapir]], the [[Peruvian Piedtail (Phlogophilus harterti)|Peruvian Piedtail]], a [[hummingbird]] species, and many kinds of [[Peruvian duck (Netta erythropthalma)|ducks]].
* [[Cerros de Amotape National Park|Cerros de Amotape]] (Amotape Hills) It is located in [[Piura (Department of Peru)|Piura]] and [[Tumbes (Department of Peru)|Tumbes]]. It has a lot of dry-climate forests and some endangered species like the [[American Crocodile]].
* [[Rio Abiseo National Park|Abiseo River]] It is located in [[San Martín (Department of Peru)|San Martín]]. [[UNESCO]] pronounced it as Natural and Cultural Heritage of Humanity.
* [[Yanachaga–Chemillen National Park|Yanachaga-Chemillen]] It is located in [[Pasco (Department of Peru)|Pasco]]. It is a preservation zone of tropical forests that are at 4 800 m. The [[Palcazu river]], [[Huancabamba river]], [[Pozuzo river]] and their affluents flows through this National Park. Some native communities still live in here. There are also some archaeological fields from the [[Inca Empire|Inca]] and [[Yanesha]] cultures.
* [[Bahuaja-Sonene National Park|Bahuaja-Sonene]] It is located in [[Madre de Dios (Department of Peru)|Madre de Dios]]. It has the tropical forests of [[Puno (Department of Peru)|Puno]], the [[Heath Pampas]] and a part from the Reservation Zone [[Tambopata-Candamo]].
==== National reservations, protection and spreading areas of wild fauna ====
[[دوتنه:Lomas_de_Lachay2.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The National Reservation of the Lomas de Lachay, Lima, Peru.]]
* [[Pampa Galeras – Barbara D’Achille]] It is located in [[Ayacucho (Department of Peru)|Ayacucho]] and it is the habitat of the [[vicuña]].
* [[Junin National Reservation|Junin]] It is located in [[Junín (Department of Peru)|Junin]]. One of its main purposes is to protect the ecosystem and biodiversity of [[Junin lake]].
* [[Paracas National Reservation|Paracas]] It is located in [[Ica (Department of Peru)|Ica]]. Its main purpose is to preserve the sea ecosystem and protect the historical - cultural heritage.
* [[Lomas de Lachay|Lachay]] It is located in [[Lima (Department of Peru)|Lima]]. Its main purpose is to restore and protect the ecosystem of the [[Lomas de Lachay]] (Lachay hills).
* [[Pacaya–Samiria National Reservation|Pacaya-Samiria]] It is located in [[Loreto (Department of Peru)|Loreto]]. Its main purpose is to preserve the ecosystems of the [[Omagua]] Region and to promote the indigenous towns.
* [[Salinas and Aguada Blanca National Reservation|Salinas and Aguada Blanca]] They are located in [[Arequipa (Department of Peru)|Arequipa]] and [[Moquegua (Department of Peru)|Moquegua]]. Their main purpose is to preserve the [[flora]], [[fauna]] and the landscapes formation.
* [[Calipuy National Reservation|Calipuy]] It is located in [[La Libertad (Department of Peru)|La Libertad]]. Its main purpose is to protect the [[guanaco]]’s populations.
* [[Titicaca National Reservation|Titicaca]] It is located in [[Puno (Department of Peru)|Puno]]. Its main purpose is to preserve the ecosystems and landscapes of the [[Lake Titicaca|Titicaca lake]].
[[دوتنه:Manglar1.jpg|thumb|left|220px|The National Sanctuary of the Manglares de Tumbes, Tumbes, Peru.]]
==== National sanctuaries ====
* [[Huayllay National Sanctuary|Huayllay]]
* [[Calipuy National Sanctuary|Calipuy]]
* [[Lagunas de Mejia National Sanctuary|Lagunas de Mejia]] (The Mejia lagoon)
* [[Ampay National Sanctuary|Ampay]]
* [[Manglares de Tumbes National Sanctuary|Manglares de Tumbes]] (The mangrove swamps of Tumbes)
* [[Tabacones Namballe National Sanctuary|Tabacones Namballe]]
==== Historical sanctuaries ====
* [[Chacramarca Historical Sanctuary|Chacramarca]]
* [[Pampas de Ayacucho Historical Sanctuary|Pampas de Ayacucho]] (The Pampas of Ayacucho)
* [[Machu Picchu]]
==== National forests ====
* [[Biabo Cordillera Azul National Forest|Biabo Cordillera Azul]] (The Biabo Blue Mountain Range)
* [[Mariscal Cáceres National Forest|Mariscal Cáceres]]
* [[Pastaza–Morona–Marañon National Forest|Pastaza–Morona–Marañon]]
* [[Alexander von Humboldt National Forest|Alexander von Humboldt]]
==== Protection forests ====
* [[Aledaño Bocatoma del Canal Nuevo Imperial Protection Forest|Aledaño Bocatoma del Canal Nuevo Imperial]] (Aledaño Intake of the New Imperial Canal)
* [[Puquio Santa Rosa Protection Forest|Puquio Santa Rosa]] (Santa Rosa spring of water)
* [[Pui–Pui Protection Forest|Pui–Pui]]
* [[San Matías–San Carlos Protection Forest|San Matías–San Carlos]]
* [[Alto Mayo Protection Forest|Alto Mayo]]
* [[Pagaibamba Protection Forest|Pagaibamba]]
==== Communal reservation ====
* [[Yanesha Communal Reservation|Yanesha]]
==== Hunting enclosed lands ====
* [[Sunchubamba Hunting enclosed land|Sunchubamba]]
* [[El Angolo Hunting enclosed land|El Angolo]]
==== Reserved zones ====
* [[Manú National Park|Manu]]
* [[Laquipampa Reserved Zone|Laquipampa]]
* [[Apurimac Reserved Zone|Apurimac]]
* [[Pantanos de Villa Reserved Zone|Pantanos de Villa]] (The swamps of Villa)
* [[Tambopata–Candamo Reserved Zone|Tambopata–Candamo]]
* [[Batán Grande Reserved Zone|Batán Grande]]
* [[Algarrobal El Moro Reserved Zone|Algarrobal El Moro]] (El Moro carob tree groved)
* [[Tumbes Reserved Zone|Tumbes]]
* [[Güeppí Reserved Zone|Güeppí]]
* [[Chancaybaños Reserved Zone|Chancaybaños]]
* [[Aymuru Lupaca Reserved Zone|Aymuru Lupaca]]
== Economy ==
{{unsourced}}
{{main|Economy of Peru}}
[[دوتنه:Sanisidro_12.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Buildings in [[San Isidro District|San Isidro]], [[Lima]]'s largest financial district]]
[[دوتنه:La_Punta_aerial_view.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Aerial view of [[La Punta]], [[Callao]]]]
Since [[1990]], the Peruvian economy has undergone considerable free market reforms, from legalizing parts of the [[informal sector]] to significant privatizations in the mining, electric/power, and telecommunications industries. Aided by foreign investment and cooperation between the former [[Fujimori]] administration, the [[IMF]], and the [[World Bank]], [[economic growth]] was rapid in [[1994]]–[[1997|97]] and inflation was kept low.
Still, some say that Peru's reforms have not led to sustained economic progress. According to the [[Center for Economic and Policy Research]], a U.S.-based [[think tank]], "Income per person in Peru – the most basic economic measure of living standards – is currently about the same as it was 25 years ago. This is a remarkable long-term economic failure."[http://www.cepr.net/publications/peru_background_2006_04.pdf]
In [[1998]], [[El Niño]]'s impact on agriculture, the financial crisis in [[Asia]], and instability in Brazilian markets undercut growth. [[1999]] was another lean year for Peru, with the aftermath of [[El Niño]] and the [[Asian financial crisis]] having an avdersely effect on the market economy. Lima did manage to complete negotiations for an Extended Fund Facility with the [[IMF]] in June [[1999]], although it subsequently had to renegotiate the targets. Pressure on spending grew in the run-up to the [[2000]] elections.
<!-- Nevertheless, improved commodity prices and the recovery of the fishing sector should help drive GDP growth above the 5% mark in 2000. -->
Growth up to the year [[2005]] has been realized by construction, investment, domestic demand and exports. Peru's economy has become one of the most liberal market economies in Latin America. The country's petroleum, natural gas and power industries are expected to increase due to relatively high domestic and foreign influx of capital in the tourism, agriculture, mining and construction sectors since 1995.
In April 2006, Peru signed a [[trade agreement]] with the United States (known as the [[Peru Trade Promotion Agreement]], becoming the first country in the Andean Community of Nations ([[Andean Community of Nations|Comunidad Andina de Naciones]],[[Andean Community of Nations|CAN]]) to sign it.[http://ustr.gov/Document_Library/Press_Releases/2006/April/United_States_Peru_Sign_Trade_Promotion_Agreement.html] As of June 2006, Peru's Congress has already approved the agreement and the pact awaits approval by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]]. Peru is currently negotiating [[trade agreements]] with [[Chile]], [[Mexico]], [[Singapore]] and [[India]].
Peru has free trade agreements with the [[Andean Community]], which is composed of [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Bolivia]] and [[Venezuela]]. It also has free trade agreements with many of the countries in [[Mercosur]] as well as [[Thailand]], and during the recent [[APEC]] summit, Peru declared intentions to sign free trade agreements with [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[South Korea]].
Peru is also seeking a free trade agreement with the [[European Union]]. These negotiations will greatly expand the markets in which the Peruvian products are traded. Peru has potential to export agricultural products, textiles, clothing, shoes, petroleum derivatives, natural gas, minerals, as well as fish and seafood products, tourism, and manufactured goods.
In 2005 Peruvian exports were worth US$ 17.1 billion (an increase of 34.6% compared to 2004) and it is expected to grow 35% for this year reaching US$ 23.5 billion at the end of 2006. The markets of Peru have grown in all sectors (energy, construction, commerce, fishing, manufacturing, tourism, etc) in 2005 growing over 6.67% (one the fastest growth rates of market economies in South America) and it is projected to grow 7% for 2006.
For the next five years (until 2010) the Peruvian government has registered more than US$ 10 billion in private investment (both domestic and foreign) in the mining and energy sectors, as well as investments of US$ 15 billion in other sectors such as industry, commerce, tourism, seafood and agriculture, which will keep the economy growing annually at levels of 5% or more.
[[Poverty]] in Peru is high, with a [[poverty threshold]] level of 51.2% of the total population. However, the level is reducing slowly and it is expected to diminish to 20% of the population within 10 years.
== Military ==
{{main|Military of Peru}}
<table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style="margin-left:1em">
<tr><th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd>'''Peruvian Armed Forces'''
<tr><th colspan=2 align=center> <small>''[[T-55]] Tanks from the Armored Division''</small>
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military manpower'''
<tr><td>Military age<td>18 years of age for non-compulsory military service (1999)
<tr><td>Availability<td>males age 18-49: 6,647,874<br />females age 18-49: 6,544,408 (2005 est.)
<tr><td>Fit for military service<td>males age 18-49: 4,938,417<br />females age 18-49: 5,278,511 (2005 est.)
<tr><td>Reaching military age annually<td>males: 277,105<br />females: 269,799 (2005 est.)
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military expenditures'''
<tr><td>Dollar figure<td> $829.3 million (2003 est.)
<tr><td>Percent of GDP<td> 1.4% (2003 est.)
</table>
'''The Military branches of the Republic of Peru are as follows:'''
* ''Ejército del Perú'' ([[Peruvian Army]])
* ''Marina de Guerra del Perú'' ([[Peruvian Navy]], includes Naval Air, Naval Infantry and Coast Guard)
* ''Fuerza Aérea del Perú'' ([[Peruvian Air Force]])
The '''Peruvian Armed Forces''' was the second most powerful army of [[South America]][http://americas.irc-online.org/am/165]. In the last few years social stability has brought the army back to its original objectives - control of the national sovereignty on the sea, land and air, as well as to protect the people, economy, and infrastructure from threats from both inside and outside of the country.
=== Peruvian Army ===
{{Main|Peruvian Army}}
Headquartered in [[Lima]], it has a strength of 75 thousand troops divided in four military regions with headquarters in [[Piura]], Lima, [[Arequipa]] and [[Iquitos]]. Every military region assigned several [[brigade]]s of which there are different types, including [[infantry]], [[cavalry]] and [[armored]]. There are also several groups and battalions which operate independently.
The equipment of the Peruvian Army includes several types of [[tank]]s ([[T-55]] and [[AMX-13]]),[[armoured personnel carrier]]s ([[M-113]], [[UR-416]]), [[artillery]] ([[2A18|D30 howitzer]], [[M101 howitzer]], [[M109 howitzer]], [[M114 howitzer]]), antiaircraft systems ([[ZSU-23-4 Shilka]]) and helicopters ([[Mil Mi-2]], [[Mil Mi-17]]).
=== [[Peruvian Navy]] ===
{{Main|Peruvian Navy}}
[[دوتنه:BAP Grau Unitas 45-04.jpg|left|thumb|[[De Zeven Provinciën class cruiser|De Ruyter class]] [[cruiser]] ''[[BAP Almirante Grau (CLM-81)|Almirante Grau]]'' (CLM 81)'']]
Peruvian Navy (Marina de Guerra del Perú) is organized in five naval zones headquartered in [[Piura]], [[Lima]], [[Arequipa]], [[Iquitos]] and [[Pucallpa]]. It has a strength of around 25 thousand troops divided between the Pacific Operations and the Amazon Operations General Commands and the Coast Guard.
The Pacific fleet [[flagship]] is the cruiser [[BAP Almirante Grau (CLM-81)]], named for the XIX-century Peruvian Admiral which fought in the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879-1883). The fleet also includes 8 [[Lupo class frigate|''Lupo'' class]] frigates (two of which were built in Peru during the 80's), 1 [[Daring class destroyer (1949)|''Daring'' class]] destroyer, 6 [[PR-72P class corvette|''PR-72'' class]] corvettes, 4 ''Terrebonne Parish'' class landing ships, 6 [[Type 209 submarine|''Type 209/1200'']] class German-built diesel submarines (the biggest submarine force in South America), as well as patrol vessels, tankers and cargo ships.
Peruvian Navy has also a [[naval aviation]] force, several naval infantry battalions and special forces units.
=== [[Peruvian Air Force]] ===
{{Main|Peruvian Air Force}}
On [[May 20]], [[1929]], the aviation divisions of the Peruvian army and navy were merged into the Peruvian Aviation Corps (CAP, Cuerpo de Aviación del Peru). In [[1950]], the corps was reorganized again and became the Peruvian Air Force (FAP, Fuerza Aerea del Peru).
The Peruvian Air Force (Fuerza Aerea del Peru - FAP) is divided into 6 wing areas, headquartered in Piura, [[Chiclayo]], Lima, Arequipa, [[Rioja]] and Iquitos. With a strong of 35 thousand troops, the FAP counts in its arsenal with [[Mikoyan MiG-29|MiG-29]], [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25|MiG-25]], [[Dassault-Breguet Mirage 2000|Mirage 2000]], [[Dassault Mirage III|Mirage M5]] and [[Sukhoi Su-17|SU-22]] supersonic aircraft.
Also, it counts with [[Sukhoi Su-25|SU-25]] antitank aircraft, as well as [[Mil Mi-24|MI-24]] antitank helicopters, [[Mil Mi-8|MI-8]], [[Mil Mi-17|MI-17]] transport helicopters, and [[Aermacchi]], [[Cessna T-37|A-37 Cessna]] and SuperTucano [[Embraer]] subsonic aircraft.
In [[1995]], the FAP took part in the [[Cenepa War]] against [[Ecuador]] covering operations by the army and navy. After the war, the FAP began acquiring new material, especially [[MiG-29]] fighters and [[Su-25]] attack fighters which are, along with the [[Mirage 2000]] fighters, the main combat elements of the FAP.
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Peru}}
=== Cultural diversity ===
[[دوتنه:Procesión del Señor de los Milagros.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''El Señor de los Milagros'' [[Procession]]]]
[[دوتنه:Urarina_shaman_B_Dean.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Urarina [[shaman]], 1988]]
Peru is one of only three [[Latin America]]n countries whose largest population segment consists of indigenous [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]], with around 45% of all Peruvians classified as such. Most are found in the southern [[Andes]], though a large portion are also to be found in the southern and central coast due to the massive internal labor migration from remote Andean regions to coastal cities, especially [[Lima]], during the past four decades. While the Andes are the "heart" of indigenous Peru, the country's [[Amazonia]]n region represents nearly 60% of Peruvian national territory and harbours a wide variety of indigenous groups that is rivaled only by its [[biodiversity]]. These tropical lowlands, however, are sparesly populated.
The two major [[indigenous]] or [[ethnic]] groups are the various [[Quechua|Quechua-speaking]] populations, followed closely by the [[Aymara|Aymará]] which are mostly found in the extreme southern Andes. A large proportion of the indigenous population who live in the Andean highlands still speak [[Quechua]] or [[Aymara]], and have vibrant cultural traditions, some which were part of the [[Inca Empire]], arguably the most advanced agricultural civilisation in the world. Literally dozens of indigenous cultures are also dispersed throughout the country beyond the [[Andes Mountains]] and in the [[Amazon basin]].
Peru's [[Amazonia]]n region is rapidly becoming urbanized. Important urban centers include [[Iquitos]], [[Nauta]], [[Puerto Maldonado]], [[Pucallpa]] and [[Yurimaguas]]. This region is home to numerous indigenous tribes, though they do not not constitute a large proportion of the total population. Examples of amazon tribes are the [[Ashianikas]], [[Urarina]], [[Cocama]], and [[Aguaruna]], to name just a few.
At the national level, [[mestizos]] constitute the second larges segment of the population, or some 37% of the total population. The term denotes people of mixed [[European]] and indigenous [[Amerindian]] ancestry. Most of the [[mestizos]] are urban dwellers.
Around 15% of the population is classified as "[[White (people)|White]]", and they are for the most part [[Criollo (people)|criollos]], the relatively unmixed descendants of the colonial [[Spaniards|Spanish]] colonizers. The descendants of [[Italians|Italian]], [[Germans|German]], [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslavs]] and other Europeans represent a relatively small proportion of the overall White population. The majority of the White population lives in the largest cities, concentrated in the northern coastal citites of [[Trujillo, Peru|Trujillo]], [[Chiclayo]], [[Piura]], and [[Lima]]. The only southern city with a significant White population is [[Arequipa]].
The remainder of the population is comprised by those of black African ancestry and the small presence of Asians (mainly Japanese and Chinese). The Afro-Peruvians, a legacy of Peru's history as an importer of slaves during the colonial period, include [[mulatto]]s (mixed African and European) and [[zambos]] (mixed African and Amerindian).
The Afro-Peruvian population is concentrated mostly in coastal cities south of Lima, such as that of those found in the [[Ica Region]], in cities like [[Cañete Province|Cañete]], [[Chincha]], [[Ica]], [[Nazca]] and [[Acari]] in the border with the [[Arequipa Region]]. Other large but poorley promoted segement of Afro-Peruvian presence is in the ''Yunga'' regions (west and just below the Andean chain of northern Peru) where sugarcane, lemon and mango production is still of importance, that is [[Piura]] and [[Lambayeque]]. Important communities are found all over the [[Morropon Province]], such as in the city of [[Chulucanas]], [[Yapatera]] town of the same city, and other even smaller farming towns like [[Pabur]], [[La Matanza]], [[San Juan de Bigote]], [[Chapica del Carmelo]], [[Malacasi]], [[Salitral]], [[Buenos Aires of Morropon]] and even in the mountainous region near [[Canchaque]]. Further south, the colonial city of [[Zaña]] or farming towns like [[Capote]] and [[Tuman]] in [[Lambayeque]] are also important regions with Afro-peruvian prescence.
Peru has the second largest population of people of Japanese descent in Latin America after [[Brazil]]. Many of them traveled to Japan in the 1980's and early 90s as the economic situation in Peru got worse. Some, however, came back after [[Peruvian-Japanese]] [[Alberto Fujimori]] was elected President of Peru in 1990. Historic communities inhabited by people of Chinese descent are found throughout the Peruvian [[upper Amazon]], including cities such as [[Yurimaguas]], [[Nauta]], and [[Iquitos]]. In contrast to the Japanese community in Peru, the [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] appear to have intermarried much more.
=== Language ===
Peru's official languages are [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and, according to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, [[Amerindian languages]] such as [[Quechua]], [[Aymara]] and other such indigenous languages in areas where they predominate. Today, Spanish is spoken by some 80.3% of the population, and is the language used by government, media, and in education and formal commerce. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken.
According to official sources, the use of Spanish has increased while the knowledge and use of indigenous languages has decreased considerably during the last four decades ([[1960]]-[[2000]]). At the beginning of the [[1960s]] some 39% of the total Peruvian population were registered as speakers of indigenous languages, but by the [[1990s]] the figures show a considerably decline in the use of Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages, when only 28% is registered as Quechua-speaking (16% of whom reported to be bilingual in Spanish) and Spanish-speakers increased to 72%.
For 2005, government figures place Spanish as being spoken by 80.3% of the population, but among Amerindian languages another decrease is registered. Of the indigenous languages, Quechua remains the most spoken, and even today is used by some 16.2% of the total Peruvian population, or a third of Peru's total indigenous population. The number of Aymara-speakers and other indigenous languages is placed at 3%, and foreign languages 0.2%.
The drastic decline in use and knowledge of indigenous languages is largely attributed to the recent demographic factors. The urbanization and assimilation of Peru's Amerindian plurality into the Hispanic-mestizo culture, as well as the new socioeconomic factors associated with class structure have given privilege to the use of Spanish at the expense of the Amerindian languages which were spoken by the majority of the population less than a century ago.
The major obstacle to a more widespread use of the Quechua language is the fact that multiple dialects of this language exist. The variations among these Quechua dialects are as pronounced as - for example - the differences between Spanish, Portuguese and Italian. Quechua, along with Aymara and the minor indigenous languages, was originally and remains essentially an oral language. Therefore, there is a lack of modern media which use it: for example books, newspapers, software, magazines, technical journals, etc. However, non-governmental organizations as well as state sponsored groups are involved in projects to edit and translate major works into the Quechua language; for instance, in late 2005 a superb version of Don Quixote was presented in Quechua.
The percentage of native speakers of Quechua who are illiterate has been decreasing lately, as 86.87% of the Peruvian population is literate. More encouraging, nationwide literacy rate of youth aged 15 to 24 years is 96.8%.
== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Peru}}
Like its rich national history, the popular culture of contemporary Peru is the result of a fusion of cultures, constituted primarily from the cultural legacy of the indigenous groups, and Spanish and African colonists. This cultural mixture has been further enriched by the contributions of other immigrant groups, particularly Asians and non-Iberian Europeans.
=== Peruvian artistic creation ===
[[دوتنه:Pachacamac_Temple.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Pachacamac Temple. The photo was taken in 2002.]]
[[دوتنه:Panoramic Cusco from Sacsayhuaman.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Panoramic View of Cusco from Sacsayhuaman]]
Peruvian cultural patrimony has its origin in the magnificent [[Peruvian Ancient Cultures|Andean civilizations]], which flourished before the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spaniards’ arrival]]. Peru's [[List of archaeological world treasures (major and minor)|archaeological treasures]] are evidence of many significant achievements comparable to those of other great civilizations.
Some of the first artistic manifestations reflecting more advanced intellectual and technological evolution are artifacts found in the deposits of [[Chavín de Huantar|Chavín de Huántar]] and [[Cupisnique]]. These are examples of symbolic and religious art including [[gold and silver work]], [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]],[[architecture]] and [[Sculptured stones|stone sculpture]]. These sites date as far back as the [[14th century BC]] and [[11th century BC]], respectively.
Between the [[8th century BC]] and [[1st century]] AD, the [[Paracas]] Cavernas and [[Paracas]] Necrópolis cultures developed. The [[Paracas]] Cavernas culture produced beautiful polychrome ceramics with religious representations as well as monochrome ceramics. The [[Paracas]] Necrópolis culture is characterized by its delicate fabrics in complex styles.
In the period between the [[3rd century BC]] and [[7th century]] AD, the urban culture known as [[Moche|Mochica]] developed in [[Lambayeque (Department of Peru)|Lambayeque]]. [[Nazca culture]] also developed in this period in the valley of [[río Grande (Peru)|río Grande]], in [[Ica (Department of Peru)|Ica]]. In [[Moche|Mochica culture]], the magnificent [[Huaca del Sol]] and [[Huaca de la Luna]] and the [[Huaca Rajada]] of [[Sipán|Sipan]] are worth mentioning. They are notable for their [[Terrace (agriculture)|cultivation in terraces]] and [[hydraulic engineering]], as well as some of the most original ceramics, textiles, and pictorial and sculptural art in the Andean world.
The [[Huari Culture|Wari civilization]], which flourished between the [[8th century]] and [[12th century]] AD, was based in [[Ayacucho (Department of Peru)|Ayacucho]]. This civilization may have been the first Andean culture to define a planned urban layout. Such a concept was later expanded to zones like [[Pachacamac]], [[Cajamarquilla]], [[Wari Willca]] and others. [[Tiwanaku|Tiahuanaco culture]] developed by the borders of [[lake Titicaca]] between the [[9th century]] and [[13th century]] AD. This culture introduced monumental lithic architecture and sculpture as well as military urbanism. These advances in [[architecture]] were possible thanks to the discovery of [[bronze]] for making tools.
The [[Chimú Culture|Chimú town]] improvement on the principle of urban architecture. This civilization built the city of [[Chan Chan]] in the valley of the [[Moche river]], in [[La Libertad (Department of Peru)|La Libertad]], between the [[14th century|14th]] and [[15th century|15th]] centuries AD. The [[Chimú Culture|chimú]] were also skillful [[goldsmith]]s and made remarkable works of [[hydraulic engineering]].
The [[Inca Empire|Inca Civilization]] incorporated, and in many cases perfected, many of the cultural techniques of the civilizations that preceded it. There are many examples of original Inca architecture and engineering that have outlasted later Spanish colonial structures. In this regard, the rich Inca heritage can still be observed in cities like [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]], the fortress of [[Sacsayhuamán|Sacsahuaman]], Ollantaytambo, [[Machu Picchu]], and extensive stone roads that united [[Cusco (Department of Peru)|Cuzco]] with the four cardinal points of the [[Inca Empire]]. The Spanish conquest displaced, not without violence, native artistic practices and concepts, although in many cases, it made for enriching hybrids of traditional Spanish and native art.
=== Architecture ===
[[دوتنه:Cathedral_aqp.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa]] (1621-1656)]]
Peruvian architecture is a conjunction of European styles exposed to the influence of indigenous imagery. Two of the most well-known examples of the [[Renaissance|Renaissance period]] are [[Cathedral of Cusco|the Cathedral]] and the [[church of Santa Clara of Cuzco]]. After this period, the mestization reached its richer expression in the [[Baroque]]. Some examples of this [[Baroque|Baroque period]] are the [[Convento de San Francisco|convent of San Francisco de Lima]], the [[Iglesia de la Compañía|church of the Compañía]] and the facade of the [[National University of San Antonio Abad in Cuzco|University of Cuzco]] and, overall, the churches of [[Iglesía de San Agustín|San Agustín]] and [[Iglesía de Santa Rosa|Santa Rosa]] of [[Arequipa (Department of Peru)|Arequipa]], its more beautiful exponents.
The [[The Independence of Peru|independence war]] left a creative emptiness that [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassicism]] of French inspiration could just fill. The [[20th century|XX century]] is characterized by the [[eclecticism]], to which the [[Functionalism (architecture)|constructive functionalism]] has been against. The most considerable example is [[San Martin Plaza]] in [[Lima]].
=== Sculpture and painting ===
[[دوتنه:Lima_Cathedral.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Cathedral of Lima]] facing the Plaza de Armas]]
Peruvian [[sculpture]] and [[painting]] began to define themselves from the [[Studio|ateliers]] founded by [[monk]]s, who were strongly influenced by the Sevillian [[Contemporary Baroque Art|Baroque School]]. In this background, the stalls of the [[Lima Cathedral|Cathedral]] choir, the fountain of the [[Plaza de Armas|Main Square]] of [[Lima District|Lima]] and great part of the colonial production were registered.
The artistic crossbreeding was more intense in the pictorial creation. This crossbreeding gathered, without ambages, the native heritage and materialized, without incisions, the historical continuity. You are able to see this in the portrait of prisoner Atahualpa, from [[Diego de Mora]], or in the linens of the Italians [[Mateo Pérez de Alesio]] and [[Angelino Medoro]], the Spanish [[Francisco Bejarano]] and [[J. de Illescas]] and the Creole [[J. Rodriguez]].
During [[17th century|XVII]] and [[18th century|XVIII centuries]], the [[Baroque]] also dominated the field of [[plastic arts]]. In the [[19th century|XIX century]], the [[French Rococo and Neoclassicism|French neoclassic]] and [[Romanticism|romantic currents]] found his best representatives in [[L. Montero]], the [[Ignacio Merino]] and [[Francisco Masias]].
In the [[20th century|XX century]], the establishment of the [[Escuela de Bellas Artes de Lima|Fine Arts School of Lima]] ([[1919]]) printed the decisive impulse on Peruvian sculpture and painting. In [[sculpture]], we have some remarkable names like [[Luis Agurto]], [[L. Valdettaro]], [[Joaquin Roca Rey]], [[J. Piqueras]], [[Alberto Guzmán]], [[Victor Delfín]] and [[F. Sánchez]]. Between the painters, we have [[Daniel Hernández (painter)|Daniel Hernández]], [[R. Grau]], [[Cesar Quispez Asin]] and [[Jose Sabogal]]. [[Jose Sabogal|Sabogal]] headed the indigenous movement. This movemevent was one of the props of the Peruvian contemporary painting, which more representative names are [[Fernando de Szyszlo]], [[Alberto Davila (Peru)|Alberto Davila]], [[Armando Villegas]], [[Sabino Springett]], [[Victor Humareda]], [[M. A. Cuadros]], [[Angel Chavez]], [[Milner Cajahuaringa]], [[Arturo Kubotta]], [[Venancio Shinki]], [[Alberto Quintanilla]], [[G. Chavez]], [[Tilsa Tsuchiya]], [[David Herskowitz]], [[Oscar Allain]] and [[Carlos Revilla]].
=== Literature ===
In the history of [[Peruvian literature]], the oral [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] tradition and the technical resources of writing (incorporated by Spaniards) converge in each other. From the beginning, it was possible to gather and to express the different and complex cultural realities that entered in conflict immediately after [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|the conquest]].
[[دوتنه:Garcilaso1.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Inca Garcilaso de la Vega, a Peruvian writer from Cuzco]]
[[Quechua]] and [[Aymara language|Aymara]] literature was transmitted in an oral way. It was linked to religious, agrarian, affectionate, festive or funeral [[rite]]s. These characteristics became into certain forms of [[poetry]] or [[prose]], as it is observed in the first historical [[chronicle]]s of the [[Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]] ([[Comentarios Reales de los Incas|Los comentarios reales]]) or [[Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala]] ([[la Nueva crónica y buen gobierno]]) and in the identification between the [[yaravi]]es and the patriotic and romantic poetry. One of the most outstanding exponents here was [[Mariano Melgar]].
Later, the [[hegemony]] of Creole [[oligarchy]] in the Peruvian society favored the abandonment of the indigenous forms in favor of the European ones. Then the [[Neoclassicism|neoclassicists]] arose like [[Manuel Asencio y Segura]] and [[Felipe Pardo y Aliaga]]. They held themselves almost until the end of the [[19th century|XIX century]]. At this time, the [[Romanticism|romantic current]] was imposed thanked to the works of [[Carlos Augusto Salaverry]] and [[Jose Arnaldo Marquez]], between others. The general crisis derived from the [[War of the Pacific]] gave place to the [[Modernism]]. Its best exponents were [[Jose Santos Chocano]] and [[José María Eguren]]. After them, the [[Avant-garde|Avant-gardism]] current popped up strongly impelled by the magazines: [[Colónida magazine|Colónida]] and [[Amauta magazine|Amauta]]. [[Amauta magazine]] was founded in [[1926]] by [[José Carlos Mariátegui]]. Between its collaborators was [[César Vallejo]]. Meanwhile the [[Indigenous current]] in [[poetry]] was reborn thanked to [[Luis Fabio Xammar]]. The [[Avant-garde|avant-gardist]] writers were fragmenting in different [[Lyric poetry|lyric]] proposals like the ones of [[Xavier Abril]], [[Alberto Hidalgo]], [[Sebastian Salazar Bondy]], [[Carlos Germán Belli]], and others. They were opening new and diverse expressive fields.
In the [[19th century|XIX century]], Peruvian prose passed from the [[costumbrismo current]]: [[Manuel Ascensio Segura]] and [[Ricardo Palma]], to the [[Modernist literature|Modernism current]]: [[Manuel González Prada]] and [[José Santos Chocano]]. In the [[20th century|XX century]], the indigenous prose reached some of its culminating moments with [[Ciro Alegría]] and [[José María Arguedas]], [[Sebastián Salazar Bondy]], [[Manuel Scorza]] and [[Julio Ramón Ribeyro]]. Without leaving the [[Realism (arts)|realistic]] approach, [[Mario Vargas Llosa]] and [[Alfredo Bryce|Alfredo Bryce Echenique]] incorporated new [[narrative]] techniques. Some of the most remarkable names in [[poetry]] are [[Emilio Adolfo Westphalen]], [[Jorge Eduardo Eielson]], [[Carlos Germán Belli]], [[Antonio Cisneros]], [[Wáshington Delgado]], [[Marco Martos]], [[Carmen Ollé]] and in [[narrative]]: [[Miguel Gutiérrez]], [[Gregorio Martínez]], [[Alonso Cueto]], [[Guillermo Niño de Guzmán]], between others.
=== Art ===
[[دوتنه:La_Compania_Cusco_.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''Iglesia de la Compañía'', [[Cuzco]]]]
[[دوتنه:Sacsayhuaman (pixinn.net).jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Inca stonghold of [[Sacsayhuaman]] near [[Cuzco]]]]
The art of Peru was shaped by the melting between [[Culture of Spain|Spanish]] and [[Amerindian]] cultures. During pre-Columbian times, Peru was one of the major centers of artistic expression in [[The Americas]], where [[Pre-Inca cultures]], such as [[Chavin culture|Chavín]], [[Moche]], [[Paracas culture|Paracas]], [[Huari]] (Wari), [[Nazca culture|Nazca]], [[Chimu]], and [[Tiahuanaco]] developed high-quality [[pottery]], [[textile]]s, [[jewelry]], and [[sculpture]].
Drawing upon earlier cultures, the Incas continued to maintain these crafts but made even more impressive achievements in architecture. The mountain town of [[Machu Picchu]] and the buildings at [[Cuzco]] are excellent examples of [[Tahuantinsuyu|Inca]] architectural design.
During the colonial period, Spanish [[baroque]] fused with the rich Inca tradition to produce [[mestizo]] art. The Cuzco school of largely anonymous Indian artists followed the Spanish baroque tradition with influence from the Italian, Flemish, and French schools.
Painter Francisco Fierro made a distinctive contribution to this school with his portrayals of typical events, manners, and customs of mid-19th-century Peru. Francisco Lazo, forerunner of the indigenous school of painters, also achieved fame for his portraits.
Peru has passed early 20th century brought "indigenismo," expressed in a new awareness of Indian culture. Since [[World War II]], Peruvian writers, artists, and intellectuals such as [[Cesar Vallejo]] and [[José María Arguedas]] have participated in worldwide intellectual and artistic movements, drawing especially on U.S. and European trends.
In the decade after [[1932]], the "indigenous school" of painting headed by [[José Sabogal]] dominated the cultural scene in Peru. A subsequent reaction among Peruvian artists led to the beginning of modern Peruvian painting. Sabogal's resignation as director of the National School of Arts in [[1943]] coincided with the return of several Peruvian painters from Europe who revitalised "universal" and international styles of painting in Peru.
During the 1960s, Fernando de Szyszlo, an internationally recognised Peruvian artist, became the main advocate for abstract painting and pushed Peruvian art toward modernism. Peru remains an art-producing center with painters such as Fernando de Szyslo, Gerardo Chavez, José Tola, Alberto Quintanilla, and José Carlos Ramos, along with sculptor Victor Delfín, gaining international stature.
Promising young artists continue to develop now that Peru's economy allows more promotion of the arts.
=== Crafts ===
Between the most spread crafts in Peru, there are the [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]] (either artistic or utilitarian), the [[Wood carving|carving]], the [[silversmith]]s' work, the leather [[Repoussé and chasing|repoussage]], the straw [[weaving]], and of course the [[textile]] work, emphasizing the colorful [[weaving]]s made of [[alpaca]]'s wool.
== Folkloric expressions ==
[[Peruvian Ancient Cultures|Pre-Hispanic Peruvian Andean cultures]] were especially bound to musical artistic expressions. In fact, almost all agricultural communal works were accompanied by [[music]] and [[singing]]s (generically called in [[Quechua|Quechua language]]: [[taqui]]). The ethnic diversity of ancient Peru made diverse [[tradition]]s and customs coexist across the time. They were strongly determinants of the rich development of Post-Hispanic Peruvian folklore.
At the present time, different musical expressions ([[dance]]s and [[song]]s), folkloric festivities (religious or not), [[arts and crafts]], [[gastronomy]] and other activities (that varies according to different regions) are important expressions of Peruvian and Latin-American cultural heritage.
=== Music ===
{{main|Music of Peru}}
[[دوتنه:Quena01.jpg|thumb|150px|left|The ''Quena'', a Peruvian wind instrument typical of Andean music]]
Like its geography (28 of 32 world climates), its cuisine and its various ethnicities, Peruvian music is very diverse. Much of Peru's music is derived from [[Andean]], Andalusian [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[African]] roots. Modern Peruvian music and Amazon influenced music is also common in Peru.
The Pre-Hispanic Andean musicians mostly used [[wind instrument]]s such as the [[quena]], the [[pinkillo]], the [[erke]], the [[Siku (panpipe)|antara]] or [[Siku (panpipe)|siku]] (also called [[panpipe|zampoña]]), the [[pututo]] or [[pututo|pototo]], etc. They also used diverse [[Membranophone|membranophone instruments]] such as the [[tinya]] (hand drum), the [[wankar]], instrument of big dimensions, the [[pomatinya]]s - made of [[puma]]'s skin-, and the [[runatinya]]s - made of human's skin-. The [[runatinya]] was also used in battles.
With the [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Spanish conquest]], new [[Musical instrument|instruments]] arrived like [[harp]]s, [[guitar]]s, [[vihuela]]s, [[bandurria]]s, [[lute]]s, etc. Due to these [[Musical instrument|instruments]], new crossbred Andean instruments appeared. These crossbred instruments are still in used nowadays: the [[Andean harp]] and the [[charango]]. The [[sounding box]] of the [[charango]] is made of the [[armadillo]]'s shell.
The cultural crossbreeding did not limit itself to the contact of [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous]] and [[Neolithic Europe|European cultures]]. The [[Slavery|African slaves]]' contribution was demonstrated in [[rhythm]]s and [[percussion instrument]]s. This influence is visible in musical forms like [[festejo]], [[zamacueca]], etc.
Coastal music is rooted in the haciendas and the ''callejones'' of cities such as Lima, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Tumbes and Ica.
It involves a creole version of the [[Spanish guitar]] and the famous Peruvian instrument [[Cajon]] drum.
==== Andean Peruvian music ====
Andean music is rooted in the traditional ''native music'', the [[Spanish orquestal]] and [[European Church]] musicals. The southern Andean region is famous for the [[Huayno]], a mestizo happy chant that involves [[Charango]] guitar, beautifully-toned lamenting vocals and sometimes the [[Harp|Andean Harp]]. The Huayno Ayacuchano is probably the most famous of its styles since it is played on creole and even Spanish guitar, adding to its feel an even a more soulful and romantic expression.
[[Cusco]], [[Puno]] and [[Apurimac]] have a more pure native feel to their music whom even incorporate violins. Famous tuens are the [[Muliza]] and [[Valicha]] ''Cusqueña'', whom are also very romantic and melancolic. Other Andean rhythms involve a fusion of European Church music and Huaynos such as the known song "[[El Cóndor Pasa]]", a traditional Peruvian song popularized in the United States by the folk duo [[Simon & Garfunkel]] and featured in the movie
"[[The Graduate]]". The original composition consists of a Yaraví, followed by an Inca "[[Pasacalle]]" and a Huayno fugue, three traditional Inca rhythms.
[[Jorge Bravo de Rueda]]'s famous "Vírgenes del Sol" was popularized in 1951 by [[Yma Súmac]].
[[Arequipa]] is region that probably that resembles best the mixing of the [[Spain|Spanish]] and the [[Andean]] cultures. [[Arequipa]] city is the proud creator of the famous [[Yaraví]], a melancholy style that involves Spanish or ''creole'' guitar that is sung [[A Capella]]. It has been popularized to the rest of the Andean communities after the [[Pacific War]] in honor of
[[Mariano Melgar]] (local hero). The music evokes to the solitude of the mountains, the miners and the Andean farmer. It is a mix of gypsy [[Zards]] and [[Huayno]].
The [[Huaylas]] of the central Andes, by contrast, is a cheery, rhythmic style mostly popular around [[Cerro de Pasco]], [[Huanuco]] [[Huaraz]].
==== Coastal Peruvian music ====
[[دوتنه:1316535-1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Aerial view of Costa Verde, [[Miraflores District|Miraflores]]]]
The coast has a different feel to its music than its Andean counterpart. It is called ''musica criolla'' and its rooted in a fusion that evokes to traditional [[Spain|Spanish]], [[Gypsy]] (Roma People) and [[African]] influence.
It combines traditional European rhythms, strong gypsy emotional flair deriving from [[Flamenco]] and eastern European [[Zards]], and also [[African]] based chorus and percussion.
This mixture is rooted especially in the central and northern coast, and has provided the wide range of dance and musical styles we hear today. [[Lima]] for example, is most well known musical style [[Peruvian Waltz]] known elsewhere as ''valse peruano'' and ''valsesito peruano''. The rhythm involves a singer, a chorus, creole [[Guitarr]], Peruvian [[Cajón]] and spoon players.
It is widely popularised by the great ''Chabuca Granda'', who is considered the most important composer of ''coastal creole'' music, with such songs as ''La Flor de La Canela'', ''Fina Estampa'', and ''José Antonio''. Other commonly known ''peruvian valse'' tunes are ''Alma Corazon y Vida'', ''Odiame'', ''Propiedad Privada'', ''El Plebeyo'', and ''El Rosario de Mi Madre'', some of these songs are twisted to Bolero or Salsa version by [[Caribbean]] artists.
Afro Peruvian music is commonly performed by duos of creole guitars, the [[Cajon]], [[Cajita]] and the peculiar [[Quijada de Burro]].
Examples of these dances are the ''Festejo'' and ''Landó'', which are common to ''Afro-Peruvian'' communities of the southern coast. [[Susana Baca]] is a renowned singer and composer of Afro Peruvian music. She won a Grammy award in 2002 for her album ''Lamento Negro''.
The [[Marinera]] or [[Zamacueca]] of the central coast [[Lima]] is the current National Dance of Peru, named in honour of the marines who fought against the Chilean military in the [[War of the Pacific]]. Among Peruvians of the coast, it is considered as traditional and representative as the [[Tango]] is to [[Argentina]]. The dance evokes from a mixture of Eastern European [[gypsy]], flamenco and the elegance of the [[Peruvian Paso Horse]]. Many people take classes and look forward to the annual Marinera Festival held in the city of [[Trujillo]] every July, with thousands in attendance.
In the northern coast especially [[Lambayeque]] and [[Piura]], the people are most famous for the [[Cumananas]] and the [[Tondero]] dance. These are the oldest and most mestizo expressions of Peruvian music and derive from the encounterd mixture of the [[Gypsies]], [[Africans]] slaves and migrant [[Andean]] cultures.
Peruvian coastal music has in its rich structure the participation of a local instrument called the cajón. This instrument has been mistaken very frequently with an Spanish origin (the cajon was introduced in Spain around the 1980's by Paco de Lucia, but the truth is that the cajon has been utilized in Peruvian music since the colonial times. Although it might also have ''gypsy'' influence it has been prooved that the instrument is stricktly of Peruvian origin since it is rooted in the Tondero, the Zamacueca, the Resabalosa and Peruvian coastal creole rythms before any other expressions.
=== Dances ===
[[دوتنه:Marinera_Norteña.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Marinera Norteña, the most representative dance in the coast of Peru.]]
Between Dances of Native origin, there are the ones that are related to the [[Agriculture|agricultural work]], [[hunting]] and [[war]]. Some [[Choreography|choreographies]] show certain Christian influence. Two of the most representative Andean dances are the [[kashua]] and the [[Huayno|wayno]] or [[huayno]]. The [[kashua]] has a communal character and it is usually danced in groups in the country or open spaces. The [[huayno]] is a "salon ball". It is danced in couples and in closed spaces. The [[yaravi]] and the [[triste (Peruvian dance)|triste]] have also an Andean origin. They are usually songs with very emotional lyrics.
Dances of Ritual character are the [[achocallo]], the [[pinkillada]], the [[llamerada]] (dance that imitates the [[llama]]'s walk), the [[kullawada]] (the [[spinner (occupation)|spinners]]' dance), etc. Between the Hunting dances, it can be mentioned: the [[llipi-puli]] and [[choq'elas]]. They are dances from the [[altiplano]] related to the [[vicuña]]'s hunting.
There are some Dances of War like the [[Chiringuano (Dance)|chiriguano]] that has an [[Aymara]] origin; the [[chatripuli]] that satirizes the Spanish Realist soldiers, and the [[kenakenas]] that is about the Chilean soldiers who occupied Peru during the [[War of the Pacific]] ([[1879]]). There are also [[Carnival]] Dances. A [[Carnival]] is a western holiday that, in the Peruvian [[Andes]], is celebrated simultaneously with the [[Agriculture|crops time]]. Many [[Types of rural communities|rural communities]] celebrate the youths' initiation during these holidays with ancestral rites and crossbred dances. New couples might be established.
The most attractive and internationally known Love Dance in Peru is the [[Marinera Norteña]]. This dance represents a man's courting to a young woman. There are local variants of this dance in [[Lima Region|Lima]] and the other regions of the country.
=== Popular celebrations ===
Popular Celebrations are the product of every town's [[tradition]]s and [[legend]]s. These celebrations gather [[music]], [[dance]]s, [[meal]]s and typical [[drink]]s. In addition to the religious celebrations like [[Christmas]], [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]] or [[Holy Week]], there are others that express the [[syncretism]] of the [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] believes with the [[Christian]]s'. An example of this kind of celebration is the [[Alasitas]] (an [[Aymara language|Aymara]] word that, according to some studious people, would mean «buy me») that combines a [[craft]]s and [[Figurine|miniatures]] [[fair]] with [[dance]]s, [[meal]]s and a [[Mass (liturgy)|mass]]. Another example is the peregrination of the [[Q'oyllor-riti]] ([[Cusco Region|Cuzco]]), that gathers the ancient [[cult]] to the [[apu (God of the Mountains)|apus]] (tutelary divinities of the mountains) with a peregrination to a Christian Sanctuary in a [[Hiking|long trek]] to the top of a [[mountain]], of more than 5000 m. at sea level, that is covered with snow.
== Cuisine ==
{{main|Peruvian cuisine}}
[[دوتنه:Ceviche.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Ceviche]]]]
There is a big variety of food, like [[maize]], [[tomato]], [[potato]]es, [[Ají (Capsicum pubescens)|uchu]] or [[Ají (Capsicum pubescens)|ají]] ([[Capsicum]] pubescens), [[oca]], [[ulluco]], [[avocado]], fruits like [[chirimoya]], [[lúcuma]] and [[pineapple]] (anana), and animals like [[taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis)]] (similar to the [[little red brocket]]), [[llama]] and [[Guinea pig]] (cuy). After the combination of the [[South American cuisine|American]], [[European cuisine|European]] and [[Moors|Moorish]] culinary traditions, appeared new [[meal]]s and ways of preparing them. The successive arrivals of the Africans and the Chineses also influenced in the development of the [[Peruvian cuisine|Creole cuisine]], that is so diverse and succulent nowadays.
Peruvian cuisine, for years unnoticed abroad, has recently exploded onto the world gastronomic scene. Peruvian cuisine is a blend of Amerindian and Spanish roots, but has also been influenced by other groups, including Africans, Italians, Chinese and Japanese, all of whom have added their own ingredients and traditions to the mix.
Peru's many climate zones also make it possible to grow a wide range of crops. There are the dozens of native [[potato]], [[maize]] and [[chile pepper]] varieties from the [[Andes]] being [[Rocoto]] one of the most popular, to the plentiful fish and seafood from the Pacific coast, mangoes and limes from the coastal valleys, and bananas and manioc from the [[Amazon jungle]].
Between the most typical dishes of the Peruvian cuisine, we have the [[Ceviche|cebiche]], which is also spelled "ceviche" ([[fish]] and [[shellfish]] marinated in [[lime]] juice not lemon juice as commonly mistaken for the Spanish word ''Limòn'' meaning lime), the [[chupe de camarones]] (a [[soup]] made of [[shrimps (Cryphiops caementarius)]]), the [[anticuchos]] (a [[beef]]'s heart roasted in [[brochette]]s), the olluco con charqui (a casserole dish made of [[ulluco]] and [[charqui]]), the [[Pachamanca|Andean pachamanca]] ([[meat]]s, [[tuber]]s and [[Vicia faba|broad beans]] cooked in a stone oven), the [[lomo saltado (cuisine)]] (meat fried lightly with [[tomato]] and [[onion]], served with [[French fries]] and [[rice]]) that has a Chinese influence, and the [[picante de cuy]] (a casserole dish made of fried [[guinea pig]] with some [[spice]]s). Peruvian food can be accompanied by typical drinks like the [[chicha de jora]] (it's a [[chicha]] made of tender [[maize|corn]] dried by the sun). This drink has a very low alcoholic graduation. There are also [[chicha]]s made of [[purple maize|purple corn]] or [[peanut]]. They are very refreshing and do not have any alcoholic content.
The most popular ceviche is a type of seafood cocktail where the fish has been marinated in lime with onions and hot peppers, but not cooked. The lime's acid precipitates the protein and hence turns the fish white, "cooking" it. There are several types of ceviche that include fish only, mixed seafood, mussels, etc. Other typical food include staples from the Andes; [[humita]]s ([[tamale]]s), roasted cuy [[guinea pig]], [[papa a la Huancaina]], [[Jalea de Mar]], [[Chilcano]], [[Sudado]], [[Aguadito]], Tallarin Saltado, [[Aji de Gallina]], [[Arroz con Pollo]], [[Seco de Res]], [[Chicharrones]], [[Tacu Tacu]], [[Carapulcra]] (Dry potato), [[choncholi]], [[Salchipapas]], [[Mondonguito a la Italiana]], [[Chanfainita]], [[Ocopa]], different [[Chifa]] dishes (Chinese food made with Peruvian ingredients), Estofado, Bistec a la Pobre, Arroz con Pato, [[Rocoto Relleno]], [[Empanadas]], [[Pollo a la Brasa]], [[Lechon]], Picante de Mariscos, Arroz con Leche, Turron de Doña Pepa.
[[Caramel]], also known as [[Manjar Blanco]] in Peru, is a very popular dessert. Also [[Crema Chantilly]] in very popular in cakes. Other desserts include [[Mazamorra Morada]], [[Arroz con Leche]], [[Flan]], [[Picarones]], [[Crema Volteada]], [[Leche Asada]], [[Torta Helada]].
The most popular soft drink is called [[Inca Kola]], which is a yellowish cream soda, but other sodas are popular too, such as [[Kola Inglesa]], [[Guarana Backus]], and other very common fruit sodas like oranges, pineapple, and lemon. Peru's most well known beverage is the [[Pisco]] which originated in the Peruvian department of Ica.
{{sisterlinks|Peru}}
{{Wikitravel}}
== Sports ==
'''Chess''': [[Julio Granda]] is the most famous Peruvian chess player. His epic battle in 1998 with Jorge Useche was one of Peru's most riveting chess matches.
'''Football''': The most popular Peruvian sport is football (soccer) (World Cup appearances: 1930,1970(quarterfinalists),1978(quarterfinalists),1982 and two [[Copa America]] trophies). Most of the population of Peru follow the World Cup tournament on television. Soccer legends from Peru include [[Hugo Sotil]], [[Cesar Cueto]], [[Roberto Challe]], and [[Teofilo Cubillas]]: Peru's best striker in the World Cup Finals with 10 goals. Current renowned players include midfielder [[Nolberto Solano]] ([[Newcastle United]]), and strikers [[Claudio Pizarro]], [[Jose Paolo Guerrero]] ([[SV Hamburg]]) and [[Jefferson Farfán]] ([[PSV Eindhoven]]). [[Universitario de Deportes]], [[Alianza Lima]], [[Sporting Cristal]], and [[Cienciano]] are the biggest teams in Peru. In 2003, Cienciano won the [[South American Cup|Copa Sudamericana]].
'''Volleyball''': Other popular sport is Women’s Volleyball (Silver medal in Seoul 1988 Olympic Games, Runners-up in World Championship in 1982 and 12 times South American champion).
'''Surfing''': [[Felipe Pomar]], 2nd World Surfing Championship, Peru 1965, [[Sofia Mulanovich]], Women’s World Surf Champion in 2004 and 2005.
'''Sailing''': Peru is the only country of the region that has won for six consecutive years the world Cup in the ''Sunfish'' Class. In addition, Peru has won the Central American, South American & Caribbean Championships for the same category. In the Optimist Class, it was three times World Champion in ''Team-Racing'' in 1997, 1998, and 1999.
'''Shooting''': Peruvian shooters have won 3 of Peru's 4 [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] medals. Edwin Vásquez won Peru's only gold medal in London 1948 Olympic Games, while Francisco Boza (Los Angeles 1984), and Juan Giha (Barcelona 1992) both won silver medals.
'''Tennis''': [[Luis Horna]] and [[Jaime Yzaga]] are the most famous Peruvian tennis players. Tennis Hall of Famer and Davis Cup and Wimbledon winner Alejandro Olmedo was born in Peru but he played for the United States.
'''Paleta Fronton''': The only sport truly born in Peru. Has its roots in "Pelota Vasca" and "Hand Ball". Played with a wooden raquet and a hollow rubber ball filled with air, and in a court consisting of a concret wall and floor. Paleta Fronton is growing in popularity and now is played in Costa Rica and Mexico.
== International rankings ==
* [[Reporters without borders]] world-wide press freedom index: Rank 116 out of 167 countries (2005)
* [[UN Human Development Index]] 2005: Ranked 79 out of 177 countries. Up 6 places from 85 in 2004.
== See also ==
{{portal}}
* [[Communications in Peru]]
* [[Foreign relations of Peru]]
* [[List of famous Peruvians]]
* [[Military of Peru]]
* [[Miss Peru]]
* [[Peruvian nationality law]]
* [[Public holidays in Peru]]
* [[Transport in Peru]]
* [[Asociación de Scouts del Perú]]
== External links ==
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Peru Open Directory Project - ''Peru''] directory category
* [http://www.peruanosenelexterior.info/ Peruvian in the world]
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Peru Encyclopaedia Britannica - Peru's Country Page]
* [http://www.peruanos.net/ Peruvians in Germany]
* [http://www.cadip.org/volunteer-in-peru.htm Volunteer in Peru]
* [http://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/petoc.html Peru country-data.com page]
'''Archaeology'''
* [http://www.inkanatura.com/aboutculturesandarchaeologicalsites.asp Archaeological information from the North of Peru]
'''Nature'''
'''Politics'''
* [http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm/fuseaction/searchSimpleResults/iw/1/keyword/flores%20nano%20or%20humala%20or%20alan%20garc%C3%ADa Public Opinion in Peru]
* [http://www.crlp.org/pdf/wowlac_pr00_peru.pdf Center for Reproductive Rights Report] (PDF format)
* [http://www.angus-reid.com/tracker/index.cfm/fuseaction/viewItem/itemID/9797 All you need to know about Peru's election]
* [http://www.citymayors.com/government/peru_government.html Local government in Peru]
* [http://www.cfr.org/publication/10093/ Council on Foreign Relations: Peru's Elections]
* [http://www.universidadperu.com/elecciones-peru-2006-x-minuto.php Peru's 2006 Elections]
'''Peru maps'''
* [http://www.inkanatura.com/maps.asp Peru maps]
'''Music'''
* [http://www.revista69.com/ Peruvian Modern Rock Webzine]
* [http://www.rockperu.com/ Peru Rock Music]
* [http://www.peruradio.net/ Peru Net Radio]
* [http://www.planeta.com/ Planeta FM Radio - Contemporary Music]
* [http://www.studio92.com/ Studio 92 FM Radio - Contemporary Music]
* [http://www.studio92.com/ Radio A FM - Ballads]
* [http://www.radioz.fm/ Z Rock & Pop Radio]
* [http://radiodoblenueve.com/ Radio Doble 9 FM - Rock Music]
* [http://www.telestereo.com/ Radio Telestereo 88.3 FM Adult Contemporary]
* [http://www.vivafmperu.com/ Viva FM Radio - Latin Pop]
'''Peruvian TV channels'''
* [http://www.frecuencialatina.com.pe/ Frecuencia Latina (Latin Frequency) In Lima Channel #2 -Online Transmission-]
* [http://www.cablemagico.com.pe/deporte1.htm/ Cable Magico Deportes (Magic Cable Sports) In Lima Channel #3]
* [http://www.americatv.com.pe/ America Television (America Television) In Lima Channel #4]
* [http://www.pantel.com.pe/ Panamericana Television (Panamericana Television) In Lima Channel #5]
* [http://www.24horas.com.pe/ Panamericana Television (News Website) In Lima Channel #5]
* [http://www.cablemagico.com.pe/noticia1.htm/ Plus TV In Lima Channel #6]
* [http://www.tnp.com.pe/ Television Nacional del Peru (National Channel) In Lima Channel #7]
* Canal N (News Channel) In Lima Channel #8
* [http://www.atv.com.pe/ ATV In Lima Channel #9]
* [http://www.oktvperu.com/ OKTV National Music Channel in Lima Channel #11]
* Red Global In Lima Channel #13
* [http://www.uranio15.com/ Uranio TV National Music Channel (in Lima Channel #45)]
* Congress Channel In Lima Channel #95
'''Peruvian news'''
* [http://www.elcomercioperu.com Diario El Comercio]
* [http://www.larepublica.com.pe Diario La República]
* [http://www.elbocon.com.pe Diario El Bocón]
* [http://www.peru.com Portal Peru.com]
* [http://www.todofutbolperu.tk/ Portal Deportivo Estudiantil Todo Futbol Peru]
* [http://www.rpp.com.pe Radio programas del Peru]
{{UN Security Council}}
{{South America}}
[[وېشنيزه:Peru| ]]
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