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'''ميانمار''' چې په رسمي توګه '''د ميانمار د جمهوري اتحاديه''' په نوم یاديږي په سوېل ختيځه آسيا کې پروت یو هېواد دی.
{{ژباړل}}{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = [[دوتنه:Myanmar long form.png|175px]]<!---Unicode spelling--ပ္ရည္ထောင္စုမ္ရန္မာနုိင္ငံတော္---><br />''Pyi-daung-zu Myan-ma Naing-ngan-daw'' |
conventional_long_name = Union of Myanmar |
common_name = Myanmar |
image_flag = Flag of Myanmar.svg |
image_coat = Myanmar_COA.gif |
symbol_type = Coat of arms |
image_map = LocationMyanmar.png |
national_motto = |
national_anthem = ''[[Kaba Ma Kyei]]'' |
official_languages = [[Burmese language|Myanmar]] (Burmese) |
capital = [[Naypyidaw]] |
latd = 19|latm=45|latNS=N|longd=96|longm=12|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Yangon]] (Rangoon) |
government_type = [[Military junta]] |
leader_title1 = Chairman, SPDC |
leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Myanmar|Prime Minister]] |
leader_name1 = Sr. Gen. [[Than Shwe]] |
leader_name2 = Gen. [[Soe Win]] |
area_rank = 40th |
area_magnitude = 1 E11|
area = 676,578 |
areami²=261,227 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->|
percent_water = 3.06% |
population_estimate = 50,519,000<sup>1</sup> <!--UN WPP-->|
population_estimate_year = July 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 24th |
population_census = 33,234,000 |
population_census_year = 1983 |
population_density = 75 |
population_densitymi² =193 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --> |
population_density_rank = 119th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $93.77 billion<!--IMF--> |
GDP_PPP_rank = 59th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,691|
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 150th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.578 |
HDI_rank = 129th |
HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
sovereignty_note = From the [[United Kingdom]] |
established_event1 = Date |
established_date1 = [[January 4]], [[1948]] |
currency = [[Myanmar kyat|kyat]] (K) |
one US $ = 1120 K (as of 03-10-06) |
currency_code = mmK |
time_zone = MMT |
utc_offset = +6:30 |
cctld = [[.mm]] |
calling_code = 95 |
footnotes =<sup>1</sup>Estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. |
}}
'''Myanmar''', officially the '''Union of Myanmar''' (pronounced {{IPA|[pjìdàunzṵ mjəmà nàinŋàndɔ̀]}} in [[Burmese language|Burmese]]), is the largest country in geographical area in mainland [[Southeast Asia]]. Also known as '''Burma''' or the '''Union of Burma''' by bodies and states which do not recognize the ruling military [[Military dictatorship|junta]], it is bordered by the [[چين]] on the north, [[لاووس]] on the east, [[تايلېنډ]] on the southeast, [[بنګله دېش]] on the west, and [[هندوستان]] on the northwest, with the [[Andaman Sea]] to the south, and the [[Bay of Bengal]] to the southwest. One-third of Myanmar's total perimeter, 1,930 km (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted [[coast]]line.
Myanmar's diverse population has played a major role in defining its politics, its history, and its demographics in modern times. Its [[Politics of Myanmar|political system]] remains under the tight control of the [[State Peace and Development Council]], the [[Military of Myanmar|military]] government led by Senior General [[Than Shwe]] since 1992. Colonised as part of the [[British Empire]] until 1948, Myanmar continues to struggle to mend its ethnic tensions, and overcome [[coup d'état|coups d'état]]. The country's culture, heavily influenced by regional neighbours, is based on a unique form of [[Buddhism in Myanmar|Buddhism]] intertwined with local elements.
== Etymology ==
{{main|Explanation of the names of Burma/Myanmar}}
The name "Myanmar" comes from the two words "myan" (pronounced {{IPA|[mjə]}} or {{IPA|[bə]}}), which translates as "swift", and "ma" (pronounced {{IPA|[mà]}}), which translates as "strong".<ref>{{cite book | last=Toe | first=Tet | title=The Tet Toe English-Burmese Dictionary | pages=1966, 1927}}</ref> It also refers to a resident or citizen of Myanmar, or more specifically, a person from the majority [[Bamar]] ethnic group. It is also a derivative from the local short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw. [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bm.html#Govt]
In 1989, the [[State Law and Order Restoration Council|military junta]] [[Geographical renaming|officially changed]] the [[English language|English]] version of its name from Burma to Myanmar, along with changes to the English versions of many place names in the country, such as its former [[capital city]] from Rangoon to [[Yangon]]. However, the official name of the country in the [[Burmese language]], Myanmar, did not change. The renaming proved to be politically controversial.<ref name="steinberg">{{cite book | last=Steinberg | first=David L.| year=2002 | month=February | title=Burma: The State of Myanmar | publisher=[[Georgetown University|Georgetown University Press]] | id=ISBN 0-87840-893-2 }}</ref> Because the military junta was not legitimately elected, some governments have contended that it did not have the authority to officially change the name in [[English language|English]]. This stance has also been adopted by most Burmese who oppose the military regime, who do not necessarily dispute the semantics. However, Aung San Suu Kyi is reported to have used the name 'Myanmar' in her more recent speeches in English.{{fact}} Acceptance of the name change in the English-speaking world has been slow; usage of Burma is still common. Major news organisations such as the [[BBC]] and western governments, including those of the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], still officially refer to the country as Burma.<ref name="statedept">{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm |title=Background Note: Burma |accessdate=2006-07-07 |year=2005 |month=August |work=[[Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs]] |publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1018965307901#Bur |title=Country Profile: Burma |accessdate=2006-07-07 |publisher=[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]]}}</ref> ''[[The Economist]]'' and ''[[The New York Times]]'' are among several Western publications to regularly use the term "Myanmar", as is [[CNN]].
== History ==
[[دوتنه:Baganmyo.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Pagodas and temples continue to exist in present-day Bagan, which was capital of the Pagan Kingdom.]]
The [[Mon people|Mon]] are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower Ayeyarwady valley, and by the mid 900s they were dominant in southern Burma.<ref>[http://www.albany.edu/~gb661/monhist1.html George Aaron Broadwell; Dept. of Anthropology; University at Albany, Albany, NY; accessed July 11, 2006]</ref> The [[Pyu]] arrived in the 1st century BC and established several city kingdoms which traded with [[India]] and [[China]]. The most powerful Pyu kingdom was [[Pyay|Sri Ksetra]], which was subsequently abandoned in 656. The Pyu re-established themselves, but in the mid 800s were invaded by the [[Nanzhao]] kingdom. The [[Bamar|Burmans]], or Bamar, began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day [[Tibet]] sometime prior to the 800s. By 849, they had established a powerful kingdom centred on [[Bagan|Pagan]]. During the reign of [[Anawratha]] (1044-1077), Burman influence expanded throughout much of present-day Myanmar. By the 1100s, large portions of continental [[Southeast Asia]] were controlled by the Pagan Kingdom, commonly referred to as the First Burmese Empire. In the late 1200s, [[Mongols]] under [[Kublai Khan]] invaded the Pagan Kingdom, but by 1364 the Burmans re-established their kingdom at [[Ava]], where Burmese culture entered a [[golden age]]. However, in 1527, the [[Shan people|Shan]] pillaged Ava. Meanwhile, the [[Mon people|Mon]] re-established themselves at [[Bago, Myanmar|Pegu]], which became a major commercial and religious centre.
Burmans who had fled from Ava established the Toungoo Kingdom in 1531 at [[Taungoo|Toungoo]], under [[Tabinshwehti]], who re-unified Burma and founded the Second Burmese Empire. Because of growing European influence in Southeast Asia, the Toungoo Kingdom became a major trading centre. [[Bayinnaung]] expanded the empire by conquering the states of [[Manipur]], [[Chiang Mai]], and [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Ayutthaya]]. Internal rebellion and lack of resources necessary to control the acquisitions led to the downfall of the Toungoo Kingdom. [[Anaukpetlun]], who had expelled Portuguese invaders, founded a new dynasty at [[Ava]] in 1613. Internal rebellion by the Mon, who were aided by the [[France|French]], led to the kingdom's downfall in 1752.
[[دوتنه:Shwedagon pagoda.jpg|thumb|220px|A British 1825 lithograph of [[Shwedagon Pagoda]] reveals early British penetration in Burma during the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]].]]
[[Alaungpaya]] established the [[Konbaung Dynasty]] and founded the Third Burmese Empire in the 1700s.<ref>{{cite book| url=http://dlxs.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=sea;cc=sea;view=toc;subview=short;idno=sea328| title=An Account of An Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava by Michael Symes,1795}}</ref> In 1767, King [[Hsinbyushin]] conquered [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Ayutthaya]] which resulted in [[Culture of Thailand|Thai culture]] greatly enriching that of the Burmans. The [[Qing Dynasty]] of [[China]], fearful of growing Burman power, invaded four times from 1766 to 1769 without success. Later monarchs lost control of Ayutthaya, but acquired Arakan and Tenasserim. Under the reign of King [[Bagyidaw]], in 1824, [[Mahabandoola]] captured [[Assam]], adjacent to British territory in India, prompting war. In the Anglo-Burmese Wars (1824–1826, 1851–1852 and 1885–1886), Burma lost territory to the [[British Empire|British]] and became a province of [[British India]]. On [[1 April]] [[1937]], Burma became a separately administered colony, independent of the Indian administration. In the 1940s, the [[Thirty Comrades]], led by [[Aung San]], founded the modern Burmese [[Tatmadaw]], the Armed Forces.<ref name="aungsan">{{cite book | first=Gustaaf | last=Houtman | year=1999 | title=Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy | id=ISBN 4-87297-748-3}}</ref> The Thirty Comrades received training in [[Japan]].<ref name="aungsan"/>
During [[World War II]] Burma became a major front in the [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|Southeast Asian Theatre]]. After initial successes by the Japanese in the [[Burma Campaign]], during which the British were expelled from most of Burma, the Allies retaliated. By July 1945 they had retaken the country. The Burmese fought for both sides in the war. The Burma 1st Division, the Kachin Levies, the Karen Rifles, and other formations such as the [[OSS Detachment 101|American-Kachin Rangers]] fought for the Allies. The [[Burmese National Army]] under the command of [[Aung San]] fought for the Japanese to drive the British out, but subsequently switched sides to drive the Japanese out in 1945.
In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitory government. However, in July 1947, political rivals assassinated Aung San and several cabinet members.<ref name="aungsan"/> On [[4 January]] [[1948]], the nation became an independent [[republic]], known as the Union of Burma, with [[Sao Shwe Thaik]] as its first President and [[U Nu]] as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies, it did not become a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], as it attained independence before the Commonwealth allowed republics to be members. A [[bicameral]] [[parliament]] was formed, consisting of a [[Chamber of Deputies]] and a [[Chamber of Nationalities]].<ref name="1947con">{{cite web|url=http://english.dvb.no/e_docs/511947_con.htm |title=The Constitution of the Union of Burma |accessdate=2006-07-07 |year=1947 |publisher=DVB}}</ref> The geographical area Myanmar encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of [[Lower Burma]] and [[Upper Burma]], and the [[Frontier Areas]], which had been administered separately by the [[United Kingdom|British]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Martin| last=Smith|year=1991| title=Burma -Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|publisher=Zed Books|location=London and New Jersey|pages=42-43}}</ref>
<!-- FAIR USE of ‘National League for Democracy.svg’: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:National_League_for_Democracy.svg for rationale. -->
[[دوتنه:National League for Democracy.svg|thumb|220px|The flag of the National League for Democracy is represented by a 'fighting peacock', a symbol of freedom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncgub.net/Daw%20Aung%20San%20Suu%20Kyi/Honoring%20those%20who%20fought%20for%20freedom%20%20Golden%20anniversary%201,12,98.htm |title=Honoring those who fought for freedom "Golden Anniversary" |accessdate=2006-07-10 |date=1998-01-12 |work=Mainichi Daily News |publisher=National Coalition Government of Union of Burma}}</ref>]]
[[Democracy|Democratic]] rule ended in 1962 with a military [[coup d'état]] led by General [[Ne Win]], who ruled for nearly 26 years and pursued policies under the [[Burmese Way to Socialism]]. In 1988, [[Saw Maung|General Saw Maung]] staged a coup d'état. He formed the [[State Law and Order Restoration Council]] (SLORC). In 1989, [[martial law]] was declared after widespread protests. Plans for People's Assembly elections were finalised on 31 May 1989.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/pyithu_hluttaw_election_law.htm |title=PYITHU HLUTTAW ELECTION LAW |accessdate=2006-07-11 |date=1989-05-31 |work=State Law and Order Restoration Council |publisher=iBiblio.org}}</ref> In 1990, free elections were held for the first time in almost 30 years. The [[National League for Democracy|NLD]], the party of [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], won 392 out of a total 485 seats, but the election results were voided by SLORC, which refused to step down.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Elections-02.htm |title=1990 MULTI-PARTY DEMOCRACY GENERAL ELECTIONS |author=Khin Kyaw Han |accessdate=2006-07-11 |date=2003-02-01 |work=National League for Democracy |publisher=iBiblio.org}}</ref> SLORC renamed Burma 'Myanmar' in the [[English language]] in 1989. Led by [[Than Shwe]] since 1992, the military regime has made cease-fire agreements with the most ethnic guerrilla groups. In 1992, SLORC unveiled plans to create a new [[constitution]] through the National Convention, which began 9 January 1993.<ref name="natcon">{{cite news| url =http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=3564&z=141 | title =The National Convention | publisher =[[The Irrawaddy]] | date =2004-03-31 | accessdate =2006-07-14}}</ref> In 1997, the State Law and Order Restoration Council was renamed the [[State Peace and Development Council]] (SPDC). On 23 June 1997, Myanmar was admitted into the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]]. The National Convention continues to convene and adjourn. Many major political parties, particularly the [[National League for Democracy]], have been excluded, and little progress has been made.<ref name="natcon" /> On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from [[Yangon]] to a site near [[Pyinmana]], officially named it [[Naypyidaw]], meaning "seat of kings".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4848408.stm |title=Burma's new capital stages parade |publisher=BBC News|date=[[2006-03-27]] |accessdate=2006-06-24 }}</ref>
== Politics ==
{{morepolitics|country=Myanmar}}
The Union of Myanmar is [[military regime]]. Elected delegates in the 1990 People's Assembly election formed the [[National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma]] (NCGUB), a [[government-in-exile]] in December 1990, with the mission of restoring democracy in Myanmar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncgub.net/NCGUB/index%20of%20NCGUB.htm |title= The Birth Of The NCGUB |accessdate=2006-07-19 |publisher=National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma}}</ref> NCGUB is currently led by [[prime minister]] Dr. Sein Win. However, NCGUB has very few powers and has been outlawed in Myanmar. The current Head of State is [[General|Senior General]] [[Than Shwe]], who holds the title of "Chairman of the [[State Peace and Development Council]]." He holds all key powers, including the power to remove ministers and cabinet members, and makes major decisions in international politics.<ref>{{cite news | author =Aung Zaw | url =http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=4428&z=102 | title =Than Shwe—Man in the Iron Mask | work = | publisher =[[The Irrawaddy]] | accessdate =2006-07-19}}</ref> [[Khin Nyunt]] was [[prime minister]] until [[19 October]] [[2004]], during which he was replaced by [[General]] [[Soe Win]], who has close ties to Than Shwe. The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held by military officers, with the exceptions being the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, posts which are held by civilians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/chiefs/chiefs29.html |title=Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments: Burma |accessdate=2006-07-11 |date=2006-06-02 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>
Major political parties in Myanmar are the [[National League for Democracy]] and the [[Shan Nationalities League for Democracy]], although their activities are heavily regulated by the regime. Many other parties, often representing the interests of ethnic minorities do exist. There is little tolerance for [[political opposition]], and many parties have been outlawed. The [[National Unity Party (Burma)|National Unity Party]] represents the military, and is supported by a mass organisation named the [[Union Solidarity and Development Association]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment-mccain061103.asp |title= Crisis in Rangoon |accessdate=2006-07-14 |last=McCain |first=John | authorlink=John McCain |date=2003-05-11 |publisher=National Review Online}}</ref>
<!--photo may be added after dispute at FAC is resolved--
[[Image:National League for Democracy flag.png|thumb|220px|The flag of the National League for Democracy is represented by a 'fighting peacock', a symbol of freedom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncgub.net/Daw%20Aung%20San%20Suu%20Kyi/Honoring%20those%20who%20fought%20for%20freedom%20%20Golden%20anniversary%201,12,98.htm |title=Honoring those who fought for freedom "Golden Anniversary" |accessdate=2006-07-10 |date=1998-01-12 |work=Mainichi Daily News |publisher=National Coalition Government of Union of Burma}}</ref>]]-->
According to several organisations, including [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]], the regime has a poor [[Human rights in Myanmar|human rights]] record.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/09/01/burma9290.htm |title=Statement to the EU Development Committee |accessdate=2006-07-11 |author=Brad Adams |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> There is no independent [[judiciary]] in Myanmar and political opposition to the military government is not tolerated. Internet access is [[Myanmar Wide Web|highly restricted]], through software-based filtering that limits the material citizens can access on-line, including most political opposition and pro-democracy web pages.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/burma/ |title=Internet Filtering in Burma in 2005: A Country Study |publisher=OpenNet Initiative}}</ref> <ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.burmanet.org/news/2006/06/27/mizzima-news-burma-bans-google-and-gmail-mungpi/#more-4642|title=Burma bans Google and gmail | publisher=BurmaNet News| date=2006-06-27| accessdate=2006-06-28}}</ref> [[Forced labour]], [[human trafficking]], and [[child labour]] are common, and [[political dissent]] is not tolerated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA160201998 |title=Myanmar: 10th anniversary of military repression |accessdate=2006-07-14 |date=1998-08-07 |publisher=[[Amnesty International]]}}</ref>
In 1988, the Burmese army violently repressed protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression. On [[8 August]] [[1988]], the military opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as [[8888 Uprising]]. However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly elections. The election results were subsequently invalidated by the regime. The [[National League for Democracy]], led by [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], won over 60% of the vote and over 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990 election, the first held in 30 years. Aung San Suu Kyi has earned international praise as an activist for the return of democratic rule in Myanmar, winning the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1991. She has been repeatedly placed under [[house arrest]]. Despite a direct appeal by [[Kofi Annan]] to [[Than Shwe]] and pressure by [[ASEAN]], the Burmese military junta extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on [[27 May]] [[2006]] under the 1975 State Protection Act, which grants the government the right to detain any persons de jure.<ref>{{cite news|author=The Irrawaddy |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5797&z=154 |title=Suu Kyi’s Detention Extended, Supporters likely to Protest |publisher=The Irrawaddy |date=[[2006-05-27]] |accessdate=2006-05-27 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite news|author=The Irrawaddy |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5798&z=154 |title=Opposition Condemns Extension of Suu Kyi’s Detention |publisher=The Irrawaddy|date=[[2006-05-27]] |accessdate=2006-05-27 }}</ref> The junta faces increasing international isolation. Myanmar's situation was referred to the [[UN Security Council]] for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. ASEAN has also stated its frustration with Myanmar's government. It has formed the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus to address the lack of democratisation in Myanmar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aseanmp.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1&Itemid=10 |title=About Us |accessdate=2006-07-09 | publisher=ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus}}</ref> Dramatic change in the country's political situation remains unlikely, due to support from major regional powers, in particular [[China]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs2/Chinese_MM_Eco.pdf |title=The Political Economy of China-Myanmar Relations: Strategic and Economic Dimensions |accessdate=2006-07-14 |last=Poon |first=Khim Shee |date= |year=2002 | format=PDF |publisher=[[Ritsumeikan University]]}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nwc.navy.mil/press/review/2002/spring/art3-sp2.htm|title=Burma and Superpower Rivalries in the Asia-Pacific|accessdate=2006-07-16|last=Selth|first=Andrew|year=Spring 2002|publisher=Naval War College Review}}</ref>
== Foreign relations and military ==
{{main|Foreign relations of Myanmar|Military of Myanmar}}
Myanmar's [[foreign relations]], particularly with Western nations, have been strained. The United States has placed broad sanctions on Myanmar because of the military crackdown in 1988 and because of the military regime's refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election. Similarly, the [[European Union]] has placed embargoes on Myanmar, including an arms embargo, cessation of trade preferences, and suspension of all aid with the exception of [[humanitarian aid]].<ref name="EU">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/comm/external_relations/myanmar/intro/index.htm |title= The EU's relations with Burma / Myanmar |accessdate=2006-07-13 |publisher=[[European Union]]}}</ref> U.S. and European government sanctions against the military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by western supporters of the Burmese democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from Burma of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions. Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in Myanmar and to initiate new investments, particularly in [[natural resource]] extraction. The French oil company [[Total S.A.]] is able to operate the Yadana natural gas pipeline from Burma to Thailand despite the [[European Union]]'s sanctions on Myanmar. Total is currently the subject of a lawsuit in French and Belgian courts for alleged connections to human rights abuses along the gas pipeline jointly owned by Total, the American company [[Chevron]] and the [[Tatmadaw]]. Prior to its acquisition by [[Chevron]], [[Unocal]] settled a similar human rights lawsuit for a reported multi-million dollar amount. <ref>{{cite news|lastname=Horsley |firstname=William |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3761022.stm |title=Dilemma of dealing with Burma |publisher=BBC News|date=[[2004-10-20]] |accessdate=2004-11-02 }}</ref> There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers.<ref>{{cite news|lastname=Hiatt |firstname=Fred |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A21505-2003Jun22 |title=How Best to Rid the World of Monsters |publisher=Washington Post|date=[[2003-06-23]] |accessdate=2006-05-24 }}</ref> <ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/reg.burma/archives/199905/msg00184.html |title=Reuters Belgian group seeks Total boycott over Myanmar |work=Ibiblio |publisher=Reuters |date=[[1999-05-10]] |accessdate=2006-06-24 }}</ref>
Myanmar's armed forces is known as the [[Tatmadaw]], which numbers 488,000.<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bm.html CIA Factbook]</ref> The Tatmadaw comprises the Armed Forces, the Navy, and the Air Force. Myanmar is [[List of countries by number of active troops|ranked tenth]] in the world in its number of active troops.<ref name="CIA"/> The military is very influential in the country, with top cabinet and ministry posts held by [[military officer]]s. Although official figures for Burmese military spending are not available, the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]], in its annual rankings, ranked Myanmar in the top 15 military spenders in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0607-03.htm |title= World Military Spending Topped $1 Trillion in 2004 |accessdate=2006-07-19 |last=Starck |first=Peter |date=2005-06-07 |work=Reuters |publisher=Common Dreams NewsCenter }}</ref>
== Administrative divisions ==
{{main|Subdivisions of Myanmar}}
[[دوتنه:MyanmarAdministrativeDivisions.svg|thumb|220px|The 14 states and divisions of Myanmar.]]
Myanmar is divided into seven states and seven divisions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2051.html |title= Administrative divisions |accessdate=2006-07-09 |date=2006-06-29 |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> Divisions ([[دوتنه:Tain.png]]) are predominantly [[Bamar]]. States ([[دوتنه:Pyinè.png]]), in essence, are divisions which are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into [[township]]s, [[ward]]s, and [[villages]]. Major cities are divided into districts called townships.
=== Divisions ===
* [[Ayeyarwady Division]]
* [[Bago Division]]
* [[Magway Division]]
* [[Mandalay Division]]
* [[Sagaing Division]]
* [[Tanintharyi Division]]
* [[Yangon Division]]
=== States ===
* [[Chin State]]
* [[Kachin State]]
* [[Kayin State]]
* [[Kayah State]]
* [[Mon State]]
* [[Rakhine State]]
* [[Shan State]]
== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Myanmar}}
Myanmar, which has a total area of 678,500 square kilometres (261,970 [[square mile|sq mi]]), is the largest country in mainland [[Southeast Asia]]. Myanmar is located between [[Chittagong Division]] of [[Bangladesh]] and [[Assam]], [[Nagaland]] and [[Manipur]] of [[India]] to the northwest. It shares its longest borders with [[Tibet]] and [[Yunnan]] of [[People's Republic of China|China]] to the northeast for a total of 2,185 km (1,358 mi).<ref name="CIA">[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bm.html CIA Factbook]</ref> Myanmar is bounded by [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]] to the southeast. Myanmar has a 1,930 km (1,199 mi) contiguous coastline along the [[Bay of Bengal]] and [[Andaman Sea]] to the southwest and the south, which forms one-third of its total perimeter.<ref name="CIA"/>
[[دوتنه:Satellite image of the Ayeyarwady delta.jpg|thumb|220px|The [[Ayeyarwady Division|Ayeyarwady delta]], which is approximately 50,400 sq. km in area, is largely used for rice cultivation.<ref name="myatthein">{{cite book | first=Myat | last=Thein | year=2005 | title=Economic Development of Myanmar | id=ISBN 981-230-211-5 }}</ref>]]
In the north, the [[Hengduan Shan]] mountains form the border with China. [[Hkakabo Razi]], located in [[Kachin State]], at an elevation of 5,881 m (19,295 feet), is the highest point in Myanmar.<ref>{{cite book | editor = Dr. Patrick Hesp et al. | year=2000 | title=Geographica's World Reference | publisher =Random House Australia | pages =738, 741}}</ref> Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the Shan Plateau exist within Myanmar, all of which run north-to-south from the [[Himalayas]].<ref name="myathan">{{cite book | first=Mya | last=Than | year=2005 | title=Myanmar in ASEAN: Regional Co-operation Experience | id=ISBN 981-230-210-7 }}</ref>The mountain chains divide Myanmar's three river systems, which are the [[Ayeyarwady River|Ayeyarwady]], [[Salween River|Thanlwin]], and the Sittang rivers.<ref name="myatthein"/> The Ayeyarwady River, Myanmar's longest river, nearly 2,170 km (1,348 mi) long, flows into the [[Gulf of Martaban]]. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.<ref name="myathan"/> The majority of Myanmar's population lives in the Ayeyarwady valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.
Much of Myanmar lies between the [[Tropic of Cancer]] and the [[Equator]]. Myanmar lies in the [[monsoon]] region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over 5,000 mm (197 in) annually. Annual [[Precipitation (meteorology)|rainfall]] in the [[delta]] region is approximately 2,500 mm (98 in), while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Myanmar, is less than 1,000 mm (39 in). Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of 21 °C (70 °F). Coastal and delta regions have mean temperatures of 32 °C (90 °F).<ref name="myatthein"/>
Myanmar's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and [[ecosystem]]s. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable [[teak]] in lower Myanmar, cover over 49 percent of the country.<ref name="BRMLIB">[http://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/199909/msg00690.html ''Myanmar's Forest Law and Rules'' BurmaLibrary.org Accessed July 15, 2006]</ref> Other trees indigenous to the region include [[rubber]], acacia, bamboo, [[ironwood]], mangrove, coconut, [[Areca catechu|betel palm]]. In the highlands of the north, oak, pine, and various [[rhododendron]]s cover much of the land.<ref name="BRMLIB"/> The lands along the coast support all varieties of [[tropical fruit]]s. In the Dry Zone, vegetation is much more sparse and stunted.
Typical [[jungle]] animals, particularly tigers and leopards are common in Myanmar. In upper Myanmar, there are rhinoceros, wild buffaloes, wild boars, deer antelopes and elephants, which are also tamed or bred in captivity, for use as work animals, particularly in the [[timber|lumber industry]]. Smaller [[mammal]]s are also numerous ranging from gibbons and monkeys to flying foxes and tapirs. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including [[parrot]]s, peafowl, [[pheasant]]s, crows, herons, and paddybirds. Among [[reptile]] species there are crocodiles, geckos, cobras, pythons, and turtles. Hundreds of species of [[freshwater]] [[fish]] are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.<ref name="MNET">[http://www.myanmars.net/myanmar-culture/myanmar-flora-fauna.htm "Flora and Fauna" at Myanmars.net]</ref>
== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Myanmar}}
[[دوتنه:Sakuratoweryangon.jpg|thumb|220px|The Sakura Tower in Yangon is virtually vacant due to lack of major foreign investment.]]
Myanmar is one of the poorest nations in the world, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement, and isolation. After a parliamentary government was formed in [[1948]], Prime Minister [[U Nu]] attempted to make Burma a [[welfare state]]. His administration adopted the Two-Year Economic Development Plan, which was a failure.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/burma.htm |title=Political and Economic History of Myanmar (Burma) Economics |accessdate=2006-07-08|last=Watkins |first=Thayer |publisher=San José State University}}</ref> The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the [[Burmese Way to Socialism]], a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of agriculture. In 1989, the Burmese government began decentralising economic control. It has since liberalised certain sectors of the economy.<ref>{{cite book | author=Stephen Codrington | year=2005 | title=Planet geography | publisher =Solid Star Press | pages =559 | ID=ISBN 0-9579819-3-7}}</ref> Lucrative industries of gems, oil and forestry remain heavily regulated. They have recently been exploited by foreign [[corporations]] which have partnered with the government to gain access to Myanmar's natural resources.
[[دوتنه:Bonchaungyangon.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Goods in urban areas are often transported by [[coolie]]s, as seen in Yangon's [[Chinatown]].]]
Myanmar was designated a [[least developed country]] in 1987.<ref>{{cite web|date=2005 |url=http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/list.htm |title=List of Least Developed Countries |publisher=UN-OHRLLS }}</ref> Since 1992, when Than Shwe became head of state, the government has encouraged tourism. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channelviewpublications.net/cit/006/0097/cit0060097.pdf |title=The Politics of Tourism in Myanmar |accessdate=2006-07-08|last=Henderson |first=Joan C. |publisher=[[Nanyang Technological University]]}}</ref> Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by the [[Tatmadaw]]. In recent years, both [[PRC|China]] and [[India]] have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Many nations, including the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and the [[European Union]], have imposed trade sanctions on Myanmar. Foreign investment comes primarily from [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Singapore]], [[South Korea]], [[India]], and [[Thailand]].<ref>{{cite news | first =David | last =Fullbrook | url =http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/FK04Ae03.html | title =So long US, hello China, India | publisher =Asia Times | date =2004-11-04 | accessdate =2006-07-14}}</ref>
Under British administration, Burma was one of the wealthiest countries in Southeast Asia. It was the world's largest exporter of [[rice]] and supplied [[oil]] through the [[Burmah Oil Company Ltd.|Burmah Oil Company]]. Burma also had a wealth of natural and labor resources. It produced 75% of the world's [[teak]], and had a highly literate population.<ref name="steinberg"/> The country was believed to be on the fast track to development.<ref name="steinberg"/>
Today, Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the Burmese-[[Thailand|Thai]] border, whence most illegal drugs are exported, and along the [[Ayeyarwady River]]. Railroads are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the 1800s.<ref name="idea">{{cite web|url=http://www.idea.int/asia_pacific/burma/upload/chap3.pdf |title=Challenges to Democratization in Burma |accessdate=2006-07-12 |year=2001 |month=November |format=PDF |publisher=International IDEA}}</ref> Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities.<ref name="idea"/> Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in [[Yangon]]. Myanmar is also the world's second largest producer of [[opium]], accounting for 8% of entire world production and is a major source of [[narcotics]], including [[amphetamines]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/myanmar/myanmar_country_profile_2005.pdf |title=Myanmar Country Profile |accessdate=2006-07-09 |year=2005 |month=December |format=PDF |work=Office on Drugs and Crime | pages=5-6 | publisher=United Nations}}</ref> Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, metals, oil and natural gas. The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology also contributes to the growing problems of the Burmese economy.<ref>{{cite book | first=Ian | last=Brown | year=2005 | title=A Colonial Economy In Crisis | publisher =Routledge | id=ISBN 0-415-30580-2}}</ref>
== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Myanmar}}
[[دوتنه:Downtownflatsyangon.jpg|thumb|220px|left|A block of flats in downtown Yangon, facing [[Bogyoke Market]]. Much of Yangon's urban population resides in densely-populated flats.]]
Myanmar has a population of about 40 to 55 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/popin/profiles/myn.asp |title= POPULATION AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION SECTION (PSIS) |publisher=UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific }}</ref> Current population figures are rough estimates because the last nation-wide census, conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs, was taken in 1983.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Considered_responses-2.pdf | title=Conflict and Displacement in Karenni: The Need for Considered Responses |accessdate=2006-07-13 |year=2000 | month=May | work=PDF |publisher=Burma Ethnic Research Group}}</ref> There are over 600,000 registered [[migrant worker]]s from Myanmar in [[Thailand]], and millions more work illegally. Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant workers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA390012005 |title=Thailand: The Plight of Burmese Migrant Workers |accessdate=2006-07-13 |date=2006-06-08 |publisher=Amnesty International}}</ref> Myanmar has a [[population density]] of 75 persons per km², one of the lowest in [[Southeast Asia]]. Refugee camps exist along Indian-Burmese, Bangladeshi-Burmese and Burmese-Thai borders while several thousand are in [[Malaysia]]. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 refugees from Myanmar, with the majority being [[Rohingya]], [[Karen people|Kayin]], and [[Kayah State|Karenni]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/publ/opendoc.pdf?tbl=PUBL&id=449676844 | title=Myanmar Refugees in South East Asia |accessdate=2006-07-13 |year=2006 | month=April | work=PDF |publisher=UNHCR}}</ref>
[[دوتنه:Karen Padaung Girl Portrait.jpg|thumb|220px|A girl from the [[Kayan|Padaung]] minority, one of the many ethnic groups that make up Myanmar's population.]]
Myanmar is ethnically diverse. Although the government recognises [[List of ethnic groups in Myanmar|135 distinct ethnic groups]], the actual number is much lower.<ref>{{cite news | author =Gamanii | url =http://www.khitpyaing.org/modules.php?name=Sections&op=printpage&artid=286 | title =135: Counting Races in Burma | publisher =The New Era Journal | accessdate =2006-07-22}}</ref> The [[Bamar]] form an estimated 68% of the population.<ref name="statedept"/> 10% of the population are [[Shan]].<ref name="statedept"/> The [[Karen people|Kayin]] make up 7% of the population.<ref name="statedept"/> The [[Rakhine people]] constitute 4% of the population. [[Burmese Chinese|Overseas Chinese]] form approximately 3% of the population.<ref>{{cite book | author=Mya Than | editor=Leo Suryadinata | year=1997 | title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians | id=ISBN 0-312-17576-0}}</ref> <ref name="statedept"/> [[Mon people|Mon]], who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the [[Khmer people|Khmer]].<ref name="statedept"/> [[Burmese Indians|Overseas Indians]] comprise 2%<ref name="statedept"/> The remainder are [[Jingpo|Kachin]], [[Chin people|Chin]], and other ethnic minorities.
Myanmar is home to 4 major linguistic families: [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], [[Tai-Kadai languages|Tai-Kadai]], and [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=MM |title=Languages of Myanmar |accessdate=2006-07-14 |last=Gordon |first=Raymond G., Jr. |year=2005 |publisher=SIL International}}</ref> Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include [[Burmese language|Burmese]], [[Karen people|Karen]], [[Jingpo|Kachin]], [[Chin people|Chin]], and [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. The primary Tai-Kadai language is [[Shan language|Shan]]. [[Mon language|Mon]] is the major Austronesian language spoken in Myanmar. The two major Indo-European languages are [[Pāli|Pali]], the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and [[English language|English]].<ref name="ethno">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90150 |title=Language Family Trees: Sino-Tibetan |accessdate=2006-07-09 |last=Gordon |first=Raymond G., Jr. |year=2005 |work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition |publisher=SIL International}}</ref>
According to the [[UNESCO]] Institute of Statistics, Myanmar's official [[literacy rate]] as of 2000 was 89.9%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/html/Exceltables/education/Literacy_Regional_April2006.xls |title=Adult (15+) Literacy Rates and Illiterate Population by Region and Gender for 2000-2004 |accessdate=2006-07-13 |year=2006 |month=April |format=XLS |publisher=UNESCO Institute of Statistics}}</ref> Historically, Myanmar has had high literacy rates. To qualify for [[least developed country]] status by the UN in order to receive debt relief, Burma lowered its official literacy rate from 78.6% to 18.7% in 1987.<ref>{{cite book | editor=Robert I Rotberg | year=1998 | title=Burma: Prospects for a Democratic Future }}</ref> However, the U.S. Department of State estimates that functional literacy is at 30%.<ref name="statedept" />
[[Buddhism in Myanmar]] is predominantly of the [[Theravada]] sect intermingled with local beliefs. It is practised by 89% of the population, especially among the Bamar, Rakhine, Shan, Mon, and Chinese. [[Christianity]] is practised by 4% of the population, primarily among the hill-dwelling Kachin, Chin and Kayin, and [[Eurasians]] because of missionary work in their respective areas. Most Christians are [[Protestant]]s, in particular [[Baptist]]s of the [[Myanmar Baptist Convention]]. [[Catholicism]] is practised by the remaining 1%. 4% of the population practises [[Islam]], mainly of the [[Sunni]] sect.<ref name=priestly>{{cite news | first =Harry | last =Priestly| url =http://www.irrawaddy.org/aviewer.asp?a=5380&z=102 | title =The Outsiders| publisher =[[The Irrawaddy]] | date =2006-01 | accessdate =2006-07-07}}</ref> Muslims are divided amongst [[Indian]]s, Indo-Burmese, [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Arab people|Arabs]], [[Panthay]]s, and [[Rohingya]]s. The Muslim and Christian populations are socially marginalised and are widely segregated.<ref name=priestly /> <ref>{{cite web|url=http://isrc.payap.ac.th/document/papers/paper23.pdf |title=The Encounter of Missionary Christianity and Resurgent Buddhism in Post-colonial Myanmar |accessdate=2006-07-14 |author=Samuel Ngun Ling |year=2003 |format=PDF |publisher=Payap University }}</ref> Small segments of the population practise [[Hinduism]] or [[animism]].
د میانمار فرهنګ:
که څه هم په میانمار کې ډیر اصلي اوسیدونکي زوند کوي، خو د هغه ځای کلتور بیا په عمده توګه بودایی او (بامار) دی. د بامار په فرهنګ باندې د ګاونډیو هیوادونو فرهنګونو خپله اغیزه پرې ایښې ده. دا اغیزې د میانمار په موزیک، نڅا او تیاتر کې له ورایه ښکاري.
{{main|Culture of Myanmar}}
[[دوتنه:Earpiercingceremony.jpg|thumb|220px|An ear-piercing ceremony at the Mahamuni Pagoda in [[Mandalay]] is one of the many coming-of-age ceremonies in Burmese culture.]]
Although a diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Myanmar, the dominant culture is primarily Buddhist and [[Bamar]]. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries. This is manifeدsted in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the Burmese form of [[Theravada Buddhism]]. Considered the national epic of Myanmar, the ''[[Yama Zatdaw]]'', an adaptation of ''[[Ramayana]]'', has been influenced greatly by [[Thai]], [[Mon]], and [[Indian]] versions of the play.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goldenlandpages.com/hotspots/rama/rama.htm |title=Ramayana in Myanmar's heart |accessdate=2006-07-13 |date=2003-09-13 |publisher=Goldenland Pages}}</ref> Buddhism is practised along with [[nat (spirit)|nat worship]] which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.<ref>{{cite book | first=R.C. | last=Temple| year=1906 | title=The Thirty-seven Nats-A Phase of Spirit-Worship prevailing in Burma}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|url=http://myanmartravelinformation.com/mti-myanmar-religion/nats.htm|title=The Worshipping of Nats - The Special Festival of Mount Popa}}</ref>
In a traditional Burmese village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony called [[shinbyu]] is the most important [[coming of age]] events for a boy when he enters the monastery for a short period of time.<ref name="kmc">{{cite book | author=Khin Myo Chit | authorlink=Khin Myo Chit | year=1980 | title=Flowers and Festivals Round the Burmese Year }}</ref> Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies ([[دوتنه:Nathwin.gif]]) at the same time.<ref name="kmc" /> Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival.<ref name="Myam-ma">{{cite book | author=Tsaya | year=1886 | title=Myam-ma, the home of the Burman | publisher =Thacker, Spink and Co. | location =Calcutta | pages = 36-37 }}</ref> <ref name="sy">{{cite book|author=Shway Yoe|year=1882|title=The Burman - His Life and Notions|publisher=Norton Library 1963|location=New York|pages=211-216,317-319}}</ref>Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace in Burmese life.
British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Myanmar. Myanmar's educational system is modelled after that of the [[United Kingdom]]. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as [[Yangon]].<ref>{{cite news | first =Steven | last =Martin | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3578993.stm | title =Burma maintains bygone buildings | publisher =BBC News | date =2004-03-30 | accessdate =2006-07-09 }}</ref> Many ethnic minorities, particularly the [[Karen]] in the southeast, and the [[Kachin]] and [[Chin]] who populate the north and northwest, practise [[Christianity]] as a result of missionary work.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.archive.org/details/TheSilkenEast|title=The Silken East - A Record of Life and Travel in Burma|first=V. C.|last=Scott O'Connor|year=1904|publisher=Kiscadale|location= Scotland 1993|pages=32}}</ref>
[[دوتنه:Young monk.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Members of the [[Sangha|Buddhist monkhood]] are venerated throughout Myanmar, which is one of the most predominantly [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhist]] countries in the world.]]
[[Burmese language|Burmese]], the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Myanmar, is linguistically related to [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] and to the [[Chinese language]]s.<ref name="ethno"/> It is written in a [[Burmese alphabet|script]] consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which comes from the [[Mon language|Mon script]]. The Burmese alphabet adapted the Mon script, which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 700s. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 1000s. The script is also used to write [[Pāli|Pali]], the sacred language of [[Theravada Buddhism]]. The Burmese script is also used to write several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and [[diacritics]] for each language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lwinmoe.friendsofburma.org/doc/myanmar_extension.pdf |title=Proposal for encoding characters for Myanmar minority languages in the UCS |accessdate=2006-07-09 |date=2006-04-02 |format=PDF |publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}</ref> The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of [[honorific]]s and is age-oriented.<ref name="Myam-ma" /> Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance of education. In villages, secular schooling often takes place in [[monastery|monasteries]]. [[Secondary education|Secondary]] and [[tertiary education]] take place at government schools.
Burmese cuisine has been influenced by [[Indian cuisine|Indian]], [[Cuisine of China|Chinese]], [[Cuisine of Thailand|Thai]], and other ethnic cuisines.<ref name="kong">{{cite book | first=Foong Ling | last=Kong | year=2002 | title=Food of Asia | publisher=Tuttle Publishing | id=ISBN 0-7946-0146-4 }}</ref> The staple of Burmese cuisine is rice. [[Noodles]] and [[breads]] are also eaten. Burmese cuisine often utilises [[shrimp]], and [[fish]], [[fermentation|fermented]] [[fish paste]], [[pork]] and [[mutton]].<ref name="kong"/> [[Beef]], which is considered [[taboo]] meat, is rarely eaten. Curries, such as [[masala]] and [[chilli]] are also used. [[Mohinga]], widely considered Myanmar's national dish, consists of curried [[catfish]] broth with chickpea flower, [[rice vermicelli]] and [[fish sauce]].<ref>{{cite news | url =http://planetguru.com/Articles/ArticleDetail.aspx?ArticleId=21273&ChannelId=kitchenscience | title =Get a taste of Myanmar’s national dish | work =Indo-Asian News Service | publisher =PlanetGuru}}</ref> Tropical fruits are often served as desserts. Major cities offer a wider variety of cuisines, including Shan, Chinese, and Indian.
Traditional [[Music of Myanmar|Burmese music]] is [[melody|melodious]] but without [[harmony]]. Musical instruments include a drum circle called ''pat waing'', a gong circle called ''kyi waing'', a bamboo xylophone called ''pattala'', cymbals, [[wind instrument]]s such as the ''hnè'' or oboe and flute, bamboo clappers, and [[string instrument]]s, which are often assembled in an [[orchestra]] called ''saing waing''.<ref name="sy"/> <ref name="kmc"/> The [[saung|saung gauk]], a boat-shaped string instrument consisting of [[strings (music)|silk strings]] and [[mica|mica glass]] decorated along its neck has long been associated with the Burmese culture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usd.edu/smm/GiftShop/Postcards3x5/BurmeseHarp.html |title=Postcard of Saung Gauk (arched harp) |accessdate=2006-07-15 |date=2004-10-18 |work=National Music Museum |publisher=University of South Dakota}}</ref> Since the 1950s, westernised music has gained popularity, especially in large cities.<ref>{{cite news | url =http://www.burmanet.org/news/2005/09/28/agence-france-presse-myanmar-worries-as-rappers-upstage-traditional-xylophones/ | title =Myanmar worries as rappers upstage traditional xylophones | work =Agence France Presse | publisher =BurmaNet News | date =2005-09-28 | accessdate =2006-07-15}}</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Cuisine of Myanmar]]
* [[Ecclesiastical history of Burma]]
* [[Literature of Myanmar]]
* [[Music of Myanmar]]
* [[Transport in Myanmar]]
== Notes ==
<div class="references-small">
<references />
</div>
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Myanmar}}
* [http://www.moai.gov.mm/ Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation]
* [http://www.mcpt.gov.mm/ Ministry of Communications, Posts, and Telegraphs]
* [http://www.myanmar-education.edu.mm/ Ministry of Education]
* [http://www.myanmar.com/Ministry/finance/ Ministry of Finance and Revenue]
* [http://www.mofa.gov.mm/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.moha.gov.mm/ Ministry of Home Affairs]
* [http://www.hotel-tourism.gov.mm/ Ministry of Hotels and Tourism]
* [http://www.mora.gov.mm/ Ministry of Religious Affairs]
* [http://ncgub.net/ National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma]
* [http://www.shanworld.org/ Official Interim Shan Government Website]
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Myanmar Encyclopaedia Britannica Myanmar Country Page]
* [http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/ Official Myanmar Government Website]
* [http://www.tni.org/drugsconflict-docs/burma.htm Drugs and Conflict in Burma] Transnational Institute (TNI)
* [http://www.burmasolidarity.org Burma Labour Solidarity Organisation]
* [http://www.uscampaignforburma.org US Campaign for Burma]
* [http://www.burmaday.org/?pagid=1&newlang=eng Burma Day] The real Burma and its people
{{ASEAN}}
{{Southeast Asia}}
[[وېشنيزه:ميانمار]]
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