د ترکیې د خپلواکۍ جګړه

د ترکیې د خپلواکۍ جګړه (پیل، د ۱۹۱۹ز کال د مې ۱۹مه – پای، د ۱۹۲۳ز کال د جولای ۲۴مه) د یو لړ پوځي هلو-ځلو ټولګه وه، چې په لومړۍ نړیواله جګړه کې د عثماني سترواکۍ د ماتې له امله د یادې سترواکۍ د ځینو برخو له اشغال کېدو او وېشل کېدو وروسته د ترکانو ملي غورځنګ لخوا ترسره شوې. دغه هلې-ځلې په لوېدیځ کې د یونان، په ختیځ کې د ارمنستان، په سوېل کې د فرانسې، په بېلابېلو ښارونو کې د وفادارانو او بېلتون غوښتونکو، او د قسطنطنیې (استانبول) شاوخوا کې د برتانوي او عثماني پوځیانو پر وړاندې ترسره شوې. په هماغه وخت کې، د لومړۍ نړیوالې جګړې په اوږدو کې د ارمنیانو ټولوژنې او نورو توکمي اقلیتونو د تصفیه کولو عملیاتو د ادامي په لړ کې—د ترکیې ملي غورځنګ د ځایي عیسویانو د محوه کولو لپاره د دوی ټولوژنه او تبعید پیل کړ. د یادو هلو-ځلو په پایله کې د ترکیې جمهوریت جوړ شو. ^[۱]^[۲]

په داسې حال کې چې، لومړۍ نړیواله جګړه د عثماني سترواکۍ لپاره د مودروس اوربند سره پای ته ورسېده، متحدو ځواکونو د سیمو اشغالولو او تصرف کولو ته ادامه ورکړه. د عثماني سترواکۍ قوماندانانو د متحدینو او عثماني حکومت له امر څخه له دې امله چې ورته وویل شور تر څو خپل ځواکونه تسلیم او منحل کړي، سرغړاوی وکړ. یاد بحران هغه وخت خپل اوج ته ورسېد چې شپږم سلطان محمد، یو معتبر او لوړ پوړی جنرال مصطفی کمال (اتاترک) پاشا، د نظم د بېرته په ځای کولو لپاره اناتولیې ته ولېږه؛ خو مصطفی کمال د عثماني حکومت، متفقو ځواکونو او مسیحي اقلیتونو په وړاندې د ترکیي ملتپالانو مقاومت ته توان ورکوونکی او بیا یې مشر شو.

په اناتولیه کې د قدرت په خلا باندې د بیا کنټرول ترلاسه کولو په هڅه کې، متحدینو د یونان لومړی وزیر الفتریوس ونیزلوس وهڅاوه ترڅو یو لښکر اناتولیې ته ولېږي او سمیرنا (ازمیر) ونیسي، چې په غیر مستقیمه توګه د ترکیې د خپلواکۍ جګړې د پیل لامل شو. ډېر بېلابېل ملي کنګرې سره یوځای شوې چې، په انقره کې د لویې ملي جرګې (GNA) د رامنځته کېدلو لامل شوې، دا د مصطفی کمال په مشرۍ یو مخالف حکومت و چې، د اتحاد او پرمختګ کمېټې له پاتې غړو څخه جوړ شوی و. په عین حال کې، متحدو قدرتونو په عثماني حکومت فشار راوست ترڅو د اساسي قانون اجرا موقوفه کړي، د استازو جرګه وتړي او د سیوریس تړون چې د ترکیې د ګټو سره په ټکر کې و او د "انقرې حکومت" غیر قانوني اعلان کړی و، لاسلیک کړي. ^[۳]^[۴]

په راتلونکي جنګ کې، د قوایې ملي (Kuva-yi Milliye) په نامه غیر منظمې ملېشې په سوېل کې فرانسوي ځواکونو ته ماتې ورکړه او د کاظم کارابکیر پاشا په مشرۍ غیر منظم واحدونه د بالشویک ځواکونو سره د ارمنستان د وېشلو لپاره لاړل، چې په پایله کې یې د کارس تړون (د ۱۹۲۱ز کال په اکتوبر میاشت کې) لاسلیک شو. د خپلواکۍ د جګړې لوېدیځه جبهه د ګریکو-ترکیې جګړې په نامه مشهوره وه، چې په لومړیو کې یې یوناني ځواکونه د غیر منظم مقاومت سره مخ شول. په هر صورت، په لومړۍ او دویمې انونو جګړو کې د یونانیانو سره د انقرې د ځواکونو د جنګېدلو په پایله کې د عصمت پاشا د قوایې ملي ملېشه په منظم پوځ بدله شوه. یوناني پوځ په کوتاهیا-ایسکیشهېر جګړه کې ښکاره بریا ترلاسه کړه او پرېکړه يې وکړه چې، د انقرې ملت پاله پلازمېنه باندې برید وکړي، ترڅو خپلو اکمالاتي لیکو ته پراختیا ورکړي. ترکان د ساکاریا په جګړه کې بریالي شول او د لوی یرغل په مقابل کې یې ځوابي برید وکړ، چې په ترڅ کې یې یوناني ځواکونه د درې اونیو په اوږدو کې له اناتولیې وشړل. جګړه په اغېزناکه توګه د ازمیر په بېرته نیونې او چاناک قلعې په بحران سره پای ته ورسېده، او په مودانیا کې د یو بل اوربند د لاسلیک لامل شوه.

په انقره کې لویه ملي جرګه (GNA) د ترکیې د مشروع حکومت په توګه وپېژندل شوه، چې د لوزان تړون یې (د ۱۹۲۳ز کال په جولای میاشت کې) لاسلیک کړ، دا تړون د سیوریس تړون په پرتله د ترکیې لپاره ګټمن و. متحدینو د اناتولیې او ختیځ تریس ښارونه تخلیه کړل، عثماني خلافت ړنګ شو او ټولواکي یا سلطنت منسوخ شو او د ترکیې ملي جرګې (چې تر ننه پورې د ترکیې بنسټیزه مقننه اداره ده) د ۱۹۲۳ز کال د اکتوبر په ۲۹ مه د ترکیې جمهوریت اعلان کړ. د جګړې، د عیسویانو تبعید، د عثماني سترواکۍ تجزیه کېدنې او ټولواکۍ یا سلطنت د منسوخېدنې سره، د عثماني خلافت دور پای ته ورسېد، او د اتاترک د اصلاحاتو په مرسته، ترکانو د ترکیې عصري، سیکولر ملي-حکومت جوړ کړ.^[۵]

د لومړۍ نړیوالې جګړې پای: د ۱۹۱۸ز کال د اکتوبر له میاشتې څخه د ۱۹۱۹ز کال د مې تر میاشتې پورې سمول

د ۱۹۱۸ز کال د اوړي په میاشتو کې، د محور قدرتونو مشران پوه شول چې، د عثماني سترواکۍ په ګډون یې په لومړۍ نړیواله جګړه کې ماتې خوړلې ده. تقریباً په هممهاله توګه، د سپتمبر په ورستیو او د اکتوبر په لومړیو کې، د فلسطین او بیا د مقدونیې جبهو سقوط وکړ. د فلسطین په جبهه کې عثماني پوځونو له برتانویانو کلکه ماتې وخوړله، چې اناتولیې ته یې لاره خلاصه کړله. په بالکان کې، د بلغارستان د اوربند د لاسلیک ناڅاپي پرېکړې، له قسطنطنیې (استانبول) څخه ویانا او برلین ته اړیکه پرې کړه او بې دفاع عثماني پلازمېنه یې برید ته پرانیستې پرېښوده.

د سترو جبهو تر ماتېدو وروسته، ستر وزیر طلعت پاشا د یوه اوربند د لاسلیک کولو قصد وکړ او د دې لپاره چې د نوي حکومت سره د اوربند تړون په نسبتاً اسانه شرایطو لاسلیک شي، د ۱۹۱۸ز کال د اکتوبر په ۸ مه نېټه یې استعفا ورکړه. د مودروس تړون د ۱۹۱۸ز کال د اکتوبر په ۳۰ مه نېټه لاسلیک شو، چې د عثماني سترواکۍ لپاره یې لومړۍ نړیواله جګړه پای ته ورسوله. دوه ورځې وروسته د اتحاد او پرمختګ کمېټې (CUP) چې عثماني سترواکي یې له ۱۹۱۳ز کال راهیسې د یو-ګوندي دولت په توګه اداره کوله، خپله وروستۍ کنګره جوړه کړه، په کومه کې چې د دغه ګوند د منحلېدو پرېکړه وشوه. طلعت، انور پاشا، کمال پاشا او د اتحاد او پرمختګ کمېټې څلور نور لوړ پوړي غړي په هماغه شپه په یوه الماني توغندي ویشتونکې بېړۍ کې له عثماني سترواکۍ وتښتېدل او هېواد یې د قدرت په خلا کې پرېښود. ^[۶]

د مودروس اوربند او اشغال سمول

د ۱۹۱۸ز کال د اکتوبر په ۳۰ مه نېټه د عثماني سترواکۍ او د لومړۍ نړیوالې جګړې د متحدینو ترمنځ د مودروس د اوربند تړون لاسلیک شو، چې د لومړۍ نړیوالې جګړې د منځني ختیځ په ډګر کې یې دښمنۍ پای ته ورسولې. د تړون په بنسټ، عثماني پوځ باید منحل شوی وای، سمندري ځواکونه یې متحدینو ته سپارل شوي وای او په قفقاز او پارس کې اشغال کړې سیمې یې باید تخلیه کړې وای. سربېره پر دې، د تړون اوومې مادې متحدینو ته دا حق ورکړی و چې، هغه جنګي کلاوې چې د دردانیل او باسپورس تنګي یا ابنا ګانې ورڅخه کنټرولېدې، ونیسي؛ او د "بې نظمۍ په صورت کې" د هرې هغې سیمې نیول چې امنیت ته په کې ګواښ وي، په ځانګړې توګه شپږ ختیځ ولایتونه چې د اتحاد او پرمختګ کمېټې د حکومت لخوا په کې د عثماني ارمنیانو ټول وژنه ترسره شوې وه. د "اوس لپاره"، د هوهینزولرن، هابسبورګ او رومانوف په برخلیک اخته عثماني کورنۍ وتښتېدله ترڅو د خپلې سترواکۍ اداره کولو ته ادامه ورکړي، که څه هم چې، د پاتې حاکمیت په قیمت ورته پرېوته. ^[۷]^[۸]

د ۱۹۱۸ز کال د نوومبر په ۱۳ مه نېټه یوه فرانسوي لوا د عثماني پلازمېنې او ورته نږدې اړوندو سیمو د نیولو لپاره قسطنطنیې ته د ننه شوه. له دې وروسته، د جنګي بېړیو یوه ډله چې برتانوي، فرانسوي، ایټالوي او یونانی بېړۍ په کې شاملې وې، راتلونکې ورځ په قسطنطنیه کې ۵۰۰۰۰ پوځیان ځای پر ځای کړل. متحدو ځواکونو وضاحت ورکړ چې یاد اشغال لنډمهالی دی او موخه یې د ټولواکۍ، خلافت او اقلیتونو ساتنه ده. د مودروس اوربند برتانوي لاسلیک کوونکي- سومرسېت ارتر ګاف- کالتروف- د درې ګونو متحدینو د دریځ د واضح کولو په ترڅ کې وویل چې دوی هیڅ اراده نه لري چې عثماني حکومت وران کړي یا یې د "قسطنطنیې د قبضه کولو" له لارې تر پوځي اشغال لاندې راولی. په داسې حال کې چې، د حکومت ورانول او د متحدو هېوادونو ترمنځ د عثماني سترواکۍ وېشل، د لومړۍ نړیوالې جګړې له پیل څخه د متحدینو ستره موخه وه. ^[۹]Empire ^[۱۰]

سرچينې سمول

↑ "Turkey, Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish War of Independence, 1919–23". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. د لاسرسي‌نېټه ۲۹ اکتوبر ۲۰۰۷. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
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* Üngör, Uğur Ümit (2011). The Making of Modern Turkey: Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913–1950 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Oxford University Press. د کتاب پاڼې 121. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-19-965522-9. As such, the Greco-Turkish and Armeno-Turkish wars (1919–23) were in essence processes of state formation that represented a continuation of ethnic unmixing and exclusion of Ottoman Christians from Anatolia. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
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- Avedian, Vahagn (2012). "State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide". European Journal of International Law (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). 23 (3): 797–820. doi:10.1093/ejil/chs056. ISSN 0938-5428. The 'War of Independence' was not against the occupying Allies – a myth invented by Kemalists – but rather a campaign to rid Turkey of remaining non-Turkish elements. In fact, Nationalists never clashed with Entente occupying forces until the French forces with Armenian contingents and Armenian deportees began to return to Cilicia in late 1919. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
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- Gingeras, Ryan (2016). Fall of the Sultanate: The Great War and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1922 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Oxford University Press. د کتاب پاڼې 288. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-19-967607-1. While the number of victims in Ankara's deportations remains elusive, evidence from other locations suggest that the Nationalists were as equally disposed to collective punishment and population politics as their Young Turk antecedents... As in the First World War, the mass deportation of civilians was symptomatic of how precarious the Nationalists felt their prospects were. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
- Kieser, Hans-Lukas (2018). Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide. Princeton University Press. د کتاب پاڼي 319–320. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-1-4008-8963-1. Thus, from spring 1919, Kemal Pasha resumed, with ex- CUP forces, domestic war against Greek and Armenian rivals. These were partly backed by victors of World War I who had, however, abstained from occupying Asia Minor. The war for Asia Minor— in national diction, again a war of salvation and independence, thus in- line with what had begun in 1913— accomplished Talaat's demographic Turkification beginning on the eve of World War I. Resuming Talaat's Pontus policy of 1916– 17, this again involved collective physical annihilation, this time of the Rûm of Pontus at the Black Sea. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
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- Ze'evi, Dror; Morris, Benny (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. د کتاب پاڼې 672. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 9780674916456. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
- Levon Marashlian, "Finishing the Genocide: Cleansing Turkey of Armenian Survivors, 1920-1923," in Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide, ed. Richard Hovannisian (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), pp. 113-45: "Between 1920 and 1923, as Turkish and Western diplomats were negotiating the fate of the Armenian Question at peace conferences in London, Paris, and Lausanne, thousands of Armenians of the Ottoman Empire who had survived the massacres and deportations of World War I continued to face massacres, deportations, and persecutions across the length and breadth of Anatolia. Events on the ground, diplomatic correspondence, and news reports confirmed that it was the policy of the Turkish Nationalists in Angora, who eventually founded the Republic of Turkey, to eradicate the remnants of the empire's Armenian population and finalize the expropriation of their public and private properties."
- Marashlian, Levon (1998). "Finishing the Genocide: Cleansing Turkey of Armenian Survivors, 1920-1923". In Hovannisian, Richard G. (المحرر). Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. د کتاب پاڼي 113–45. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-8143-2777-7. Between 1920 and 1923, as Turkish and Western diplomats were negotiating the fate of the Armenian Question at peace conferences in London, Paris, and Lausanne, thousands of Armenians of the Ottoman Empire who had survived the massacres and deportations of World War I continued to face massacres, deportations, and persecutions across the length and breadth of Anatolia. Events on the ground, diplomatic correspondence, and news reports confirmed that it was the policy of the Turkish Nationalists in Angora, who eventually founded the Republic of Turkey, to eradicate the remnants of the empire's Armenian population and finalize the expropriation of their public and private properties. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
- Shirinian, George N. (2017). Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Berghahn Books. د کتاب پاڼې 62. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-1-78533-433-7. The argument that there was a mutually signed agreement for the population exchange ignores the fact that the Ankara government had already declared its intention that no Greek should remain on Turkish soil before the exchange was even discussed. The final killing and expulsion of the Greek population of the Ottoman Empire in 1920–24 was part of a series of hostile actions that began even before Turkey's entry into World War I. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
- "Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal". Encyclopedia of Genocide: A-H. (1999). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-87436-928-1. “Mustafa Kemal completed what Talaat and Enver had started in 1915, the eradication of the Armenian population of Anatolia and the termination of Armenian political aspirations in the Caucasus. With the expulsion of the Greeks, the Turkification and Islamification of Asia Minor was nearly complete.”
- Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-674-91645-6. The Greek seizure of Smyrna and the repeated pushes inland— almost to the outskirts of Ankara, the Nationalist capital—coupled with the largely imagined threat of a Pontine breakaway, triggered a widespread, systematic four- year campaign of ethnic cleansing in which hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Greeks were massacred and more than a million deported to Greece... throughout 1914–1924, the overarching aim was to achieve a Turkey free of Greeks. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
- Meichanetsidis, Vasileios Th. (2015). "The Genocide of the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire, 1913–1923: A Comprehensive Overview". Genocide Studies International. 9 (1): 104–173. doi:10.3138/gsi.9.1.06. S2CID 154870709. The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically, ideologically, and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes: (1) the regime of the CUP, under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas (Üç Paşalar), Talât, Enver, and Cemal, and (2) the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara, under the authority of the Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) and Kemal. Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars, the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks ... الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
↑ Zürcher, Erik Jan. The Unionist Factor: The Role of the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish National Movement, 1905-1926. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984.
↑ Avedian, Vahagn (2012). "State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide". European Journal of International Law (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). 23 (3): 797–820. doi:10.1093/ejil/chs056. ISSN 0938-5428. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
↑
Suny, Ronald Grigor (2015). "They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton University Press. د کتاب پاڼي 364–365. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-1-4008-6558-1. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة) The Armenian Genocide, along with the killing of Assyrians and the expulsion of the Anatolian Greeks, laid the ground for the more homogeneous nation-state that arose from the ashes of the empire. Like many other states, including Australia, Israel, and the United States, the emergence of the Republic of Turkey involved the removal and subordination of native peoples who had lived on its territory prior to its founding.
- کينډۍ:Lay source
↑ "MONDROS MÜTAREKESİ" (په التركية ژبه کي). TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi. د اصلي آرشيف څخه پر ۲۳ سپټمبر ۲۰۱۹ باندې. د لاسرسي‌نېټه ۱۵ مارچ ۲۰۲۱. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)صيانة CS1: لغة غير مدعومة (link)
↑ Mango, Atatürk, chap. 10: Figures on a ruined landscape, pp. 157–85.
↑ Erickson, Edward J., Ordered To Die, chap. 1.
↑ Jowett, S. Philip, Kurtuluş Savaşı'nda Ordular 1919-22, çev. Emir Yener, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2015.
↑ Nur Bilge Criss, Istanbul under Allied Occupation 1918–1923, p. 1

[Britannica-1] "Turkey, Mustafa Kemal and the Turkish War of Independence, 1919–23". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. د لاسرسي‌نېټه ۲۹ اکتوبر ۲۰۰۷. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[:0-2] * Üngör, Uğur Ümit (2011). The Making of Modern Turkey: Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913–1950 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Oxford University Press. د کتاب پاڼې 121. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-19-965522-9. As such, the Greco-Turkish and Armeno-Turkish wars (1919–23) were in essence processes of state formation that represented a continuation of ethnic unmixing and exclusion of Ottoman Christians from Anatolia. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)
Kieser, Hans-Lukas (2007). A Quest for Belonging: Anatolia Beyond Empire and Nation (19th-21st Centuries) (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Isis Press. د کتاب پاڼې 171. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-975-428-345-7. The Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 officially recognized the " ethnic cleansing " that had gone on during the Turkish War of Independence ( 1919 - 1922 ) for the sake of undisputed Turkish rule in Asia Minor . الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

Avedian, Vahagn (2012). "State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide". European Journal of International Law (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). 23 (3): 797–820. doi:10.1093/ejil/chs056. ISSN 0938-5428. The 'War of Independence' was not against the occupying Allies – a myth invented by Kemalists – but rather a campaign to rid Turkey of remaining non-Turkish elements. In fact, Nationalists never clashed with Entente occupying forces until the French forces with Armenian contingents and Armenian deportees began to return to Cilicia in late 1919. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

Kévorkian, Raymond (2020). "The Final Phase: The Cleansing of Armenian and Greek Survivors, 1919–1922". In Astourian, Stephan; Kévorkian, Raymond (المحررون). Collective and State Violence in Turkey: The Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Berghahn Books. د کتاب پاڼې 165. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-1-78920-451-3. The famous 'war of national liberation', prepared by the Unionists and waged by Kemal, was a vast operation, intended to complete the genocide by finally eradicating Armenian, Greek, and Syriac survivors. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

Gingeras, Ryan (2016). Fall of the Sultanate: The Great War and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1922 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Oxford University Press. د کتاب پاڼې 288. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-19-967607-1. While the number of victims in Ankara's deportations remains elusive, evidence from other locations suggest that the Nationalists were as equally disposed to collective punishment and population politics as their Young Turk antecedents... As in the First World War, the mass deportation of civilians was symptomatic of how precarious the Nationalists felt their prospects were. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

Kieser, Hans-Lukas (2018). Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide. Princeton University Press. د کتاب پاڼي 319–320. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-1-4008-8963-1. Thus, from spring 1919, Kemal Pasha resumed, with ex- CUP forces, domestic war against Greek and Armenian rivals. These were partly backed by victors of World War I who had, however, abstained from occupying Asia Minor. The war for Asia Minor— in national diction, again a war of salvation and independence, thus in- line with what had begun in 1913— accomplished Talaat's demographic Turkification beginning on the eve of World War I. Resuming Talaat's Pontus policy of 1916– 17, this again involved collective physical annihilation, this time of the Rûm of Pontus at the Black Sea. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

کينډۍ:Lay source

Levene, Mark (2020). "Through a Glass Darkly: The Resurrection of Religious Fanaticism as First Cause of Ottoman Catastrophe". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (4): 553–560. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1735560. S2CID 222145177. Ittihadist violence was as near as near could be optimal against the Armenians (and Syriacs) and in the final Kemalist phase was quantitively entirely the greater in an increasingly asymmetric conflict where, for instance, Kemal could deport "enemies" into a deep interior in a way that his adversaries could not..., it was the hard men, self-styled saviours of the Ottoman-Turkish state, and – culminating in Kemal – unapologetic génocidaires, who were able to wrest its absolute control. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

Ze'evi, Dror; Morris, Benny (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. د کتاب پاڼې 672. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 9780674916456. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

Levon Marashlian, "Finishing the Genocide: Cleansing Turkey of Armenian Survivors, 1920-1923," in Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide, ed. Richard Hovannisian (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), pp. 113-45: "Between 1920 and 1923, as Turkish and Western diplomats were negotiating the fate of the Armenian Question at peace conferences in London, Paris, and Lausanne, thousands of Armenians of the Ottoman Empire who had survived the massacres and deportations of World War I continued to face massacres, deportations, and persecutions across the length and breadth of Anatolia. Events on the ground, diplomatic correspondence, and news reports confirmed that it was the policy of the Turkish Nationalists in Angora, who eventually founded the Republic of Turkey, to eradicate the remnants of the empire's Armenian population and finalize the expropriation of their public and private properties."

Marashlian, Levon (1998). "Finishing the Genocide: Cleansing Turkey of Armenian Survivors, 1920-1923". In Hovannisian, Richard G. (المحرر). Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. د کتاب پاڼي 113–45. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-8143-2777-7. Between 1920 and 1923, as Turkish and Western diplomats were negotiating the fate of the Armenian Question at peace conferences in London, Paris, and Lausanne, thousands of Armenians of the Ottoman Empire who had survived the massacres and deportations of World War I continued to face massacres, deportations, and persecutions across the length and breadth of Anatolia. Events on the ground, diplomatic correspondence, and news reports confirmed that it was the policy of the Turkish Nationalists in Angora, who eventually founded the Republic of Turkey, to eradicate the remnants of the empire's Armenian population and finalize the expropriation of their public and private properties. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

Shirinian, George N. (2017). Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Berghahn Books. د کتاب پاڼې 62. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-1-78533-433-7. The argument that there was a mutually signed agreement for the population exchange ignores the fact that the Ankara government had already declared its intention that no Greek should remain on Turkish soil before the exchange was even discussed. The final killing and expulsion of the Greek population of the Ottoman Empire in 1920–24 was part of a series of hostile actions that began even before Turkey's entry into World War I. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

"Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal". Encyclopedia of Genocide: A-H. (1999). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-87436-928-1. “Mustafa Kemal completed what Talaat and Enver had started in 1915, the eradication of the Armenian population of Anatolia and the termination of Armenian political aspirations in the Caucasus. With the expulsion of the Greeks, the Turkification and Islamification of Asia Minor was nearly complete.”

Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-674-91645-6. The Greek seizure of Smyrna and the repeated pushes inland— almost to the outskirts of Ankara, the Nationalist capital—coupled with the largely imagined threat of a Pontine breakaway, triggered a widespread, systematic four- year campaign of ethnic cleansing in which hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Greeks were massacred and more than a million deported to Greece... throughout 1914–1924, the overarching aim was to achieve a Turkey free of Greeks. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

Meichanetsidis, Vasileios Th. (2015). "The Genocide of the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire, 1913–1923: A Comprehensive Overview". Genocide Studies International. 9 (1): 104–173. doi:10.3138/gsi.9.1.06. S2CID 154870709. The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically, ideologically, and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes: (1) the regime of the CUP, under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas (Üç Paşalar), Talât, Enver, and Cemal, and (2) the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara, under the authority of the Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) and Kemal. Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars, the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks ... الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[3] Kieser, Hans-Lukas (2007). A Quest for Belonging: Anatolia Beyond Empire and Nation (19th-21st Centuries) (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Isis Press. د کتاب پاڼې 171. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-975-428-345-7. The Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 officially recognized the " ethnic cleansing " that had gone on during the Turkish War of Independence ( 1919 - 1922 ) for the sake of undisputed Turkish rule in Asia Minor . الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[4] Avedian, Vahagn (2012). "State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide". European Journal of International Law (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). 23 (3): 797–820. doi:10.1093/ejil/chs056. ISSN 0938-5428. The 'War of Independence' was not against the occupying Allies – a myth invented by Kemalists – but rather a campaign to rid Turkey of remaining non-Turkish elements. In fact, Nationalists never clashed with Entente occupying forces until the French forces with Armenian contingents and Armenian deportees began to return to Cilicia in late 1919. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[5] Kévorkian, Raymond (2020). "The Final Phase: The Cleansing of Armenian and Greek Survivors, 1919–1922". In Astourian, Stephan; Kévorkian, Raymond (المحررون). Collective and State Violence in Turkey: The Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Berghahn Books. د کتاب پاڼې 165. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-1-78920-451-3. The famous 'war of national liberation', prepared by the Unionists and waged by Kemal, was a vast operation, intended to complete the genocide by finally eradicating Armenian, Greek, and Syriac survivors. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[6] Gingeras, Ryan (2016). Fall of the Sultanate: The Great War and the End of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1922 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Oxford University Press. د کتاب پاڼې 288. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-19-967607-1. While the number of victims in Ankara's deportations remains elusive, evidence from other locations suggest that the Nationalists were as equally disposed to collective punishment and population politics as their Young Turk antecedents... As in the First World War, the mass deportation of civilians was symptomatic of how precarious the Nationalists felt their prospects were. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[7] Kieser, Hans-Lukas (2018). Talaat Pasha: Father of Modern Turkey, Architect of Genocide. Princeton University Press. د کتاب پاڼي 319–320. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-1-4008-8963-1. Thus, from spring 1919, Kemal Pasha resumed, with ex- CUP forces, domestic war against Greek and Armenian rivals. These were partly backed by victors of World War I who had, however, abstained from occupying Asia Minor. The war for Asia Minor— in national diction, again a war of salvation and independence, thus in- line with what had begun in 1913— accomplished Talaat's demographic Turkification beginning on the eve of World War I. Resuming Talaat's Pontus policy of 1916– 17, this again involved collective physical annihilation, this time of the Rûm of Pontus at the Black Sea. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[8] کينډۍ:Lay source

[9] Levene, Mark (2020). "Through a Glass Darkly: The Resurrection of Religious Fanaticism as First Cause of Ottoman Catastrophe". Journal of Genocide Research. 22 (4): 553–560. doi:10.1080/14623528.2020.1735560. S2CID 222145177. Ittihadist violence was as near as near could be optimal against the Armenians (and Syriacs) and in the final Kemalist phase was quantitively entirely the greater in an increasingly asymmetric conflict where, for instance, Kemal could deport "enemies" into a deep interior in a way that his adversaries could not..., it was the hard men, self-styled saviours of the Ottoman-Turkish state, and – culminating in Kemal – unapologetic génocidaires, who were able to wrest its absolute control. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[10] Ze'evi, Dror; Morris, Benny (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. د کتاب پاڼې 672. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 9780674916456. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[11] Levon Marashlian, "Finishing the Genocide: Cleansing Turkey of Armenian Survivors, 1920-1923," in Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide, ed. Richard Hovannisian (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), pp. 113-45: "Between 1920 and 1923, as Turkish and Western diplomats were negotiating the fate of the Armenian Question at peace conferences in London, Paris, and Lausanne, thousands of Armenians of the Ottoman Empire who had survived the massacres and deportations of World War I continued to face massacres, deportations, and persecutions across the length and breadth of Anatolia. Events on the ground, diplomatic correspondence, and news reports confirmed that it was the policy of the Turkish Nationalists in Angora, who eventually founded the Republic of Turkey, to eradicate the remnants of the empire's Armenian population and finalize the expropriation of their public and private properties."

[12] Marashlian, Levon (1998). "Finishing the Genocide: Cleansing Turkey of Armenian Survivors, 1920-1923". In Hovannisian, Richard G. (المحرر). Remembrance and Denial: The Case of the Armenian Genocide. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. د کتاب پاڼي 113–45. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-8143-2777-7. Between 1920 and 1923, as Turkish and Western diplomats were negotiating the fate of the Armenian Question at peace conferences in London, Paris, and Lausanne, thousands of Armenians of the Ottoman Empire who had survived the massacres and deportations of World War I continued to face massacres, deportations, and persecutions across the length and breadth of Anatolia. Events on the ground, diplomatic correspondence, and news reports confirmed that it was the policy of the Turkish Nationalists in Angora, who eventually founded the Republic of Turkey, to eradicate the remnants of the empire's Armenian population and finalize the expropriation of their public and private properties. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[13] Shirinian, George N. (2017). Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923 (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). Berghahn Books. د کتاب پاڼې 62. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-1-78533-433-7. The argument that there was a mutually signed agreement for the population exchange ignores the fact that the Ankara government had already declared its intention that no Greek should remain on Turkish soil before the exchange was even discussed. The final killing and expulsion of the Greek population of the Ottoman Empire in 1920–24 was part of a series of hostile actions that began even before Turkey's entry into World War I. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[14] "Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal". Encyclopedia of Genocide: A-H. (1999). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-0-87436-928-1. “Mustafa Kemal completed what Talaat and Enver had started in 1915, the eradication of the Armenian population of Anatolia and the termination of Armenian political aspirations in the Caucasus. With the expulsion of the Greeks, the Turkification and Islamification of Asia Minor was nearly complete.”

[15] Morris, Benny; Ze'evi, Dror (2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-0-674-91645-6. The Greek seizure of Smyrna and the repeated pushes inland— almost to the outskirts of Ankara, the Nationalist capital—coupled with the largely imagined threat of a Pontine breakaway, triggered a widespread, systematic four- year campaign of ethnic cleansing in which hundreds of thousands of Ottoman Greeks were massacred and more than a million deported to Greece... throughout 1914–1924, the overarching aim was to achieve a Turkey free of Greeks. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[16] Meichanetsidis, Vasileios Th. (2015). "The Genocide of the Greeks of the Ottoman Empire, 1913–1923: A Comprehensive Overview". Genocide Studies International. 9 (1): 104–173. doi:10.3138/gsi.9.1.06. S2CID 154870709. The genocide was committed by two subsequent and chronologically, ideologically, and organically interrelated and interconnected dictatorial and chauvinist regimes: (1) the regime of the CUP, under the notorious triumvirate of the three pashas (Üç Paşalar), Talât, Enver, and Cemal, and (2) the rebel government at Samsun and Ankara, under the authority of the Grand National Assembly (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi) and Kemal. Although the process had begun before the Balkan Wars, the final and most decisive period started immediately after WWI and ended with the almost total destruction of the Pontic Greeks ... الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[3] Zürcher, Erik Jan. The Unionist Factor: The Role of the Committee of Union and Progress in the Turkish National Movement, 1905-1926. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1984.

[Avedian-4] Avedian, Vahagn (2012). "State Identity, Continuity, and Responsibility: The Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Turkey and the Armenian Genocide". European Journal of International Law (په انګلیسي ژبه کي). 23 (3): 797–820. doi:10.1093/ejil/chs056. ISSN 0938-5428. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)

[5] Suny, Ronald Grigor (2015). "They Can Live in the Desert but Nowhere Else": A History of the Armenian Genocide. Princeton University Press. د کتاب پاڼي 364–365. د کتاب نړيواله کره شمېره 978-1-4008-6558-1. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة) The Armenian Genocide, along with the killing of Assyrians and the expulsion of the Anatolian Greeks, laid the ground for the more homogeneous nation-state that arose from the ashes of the empire. Like many other states, including Australia, Israel, and the United States, the emergence of the Republic of Turkey involved the removal and subordination of native peoples who had lived on its territory prior to its founding.
کينډۍ:Lay source

[20] کينډۍ:Lay source

[6] "MONDROS MÜTAREKESİ" (په التركية ژبه کي). TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi. د اصلي آرشيف څخه پر ۲۳ سپټمبر ۲۰۱۹ باندې. د لاسرسي‌نېټه ۱۵ مارچ ۲۰۲۱. الوسيط |CitationClass= تم تجاهله (مساعدة)صيانة CS1: لغة غير مدعومة (link)

[7] Mango, Atatürk, chap. 10: Figures on a ruined landscape, pp. 157–85.

[8] Erickson, Edward J., Ordered To Die, chap. 1.

[:02-9] Jowett, S. Philip, Kurtuluş Savaşı'nda Ordular 1919-22, çev. Emir Yener, Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları, 2015.

[10] Nur Bilge Criss, Istanbul under Allied Occupation 1918–1923, p. 1

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