د "بوليويا" د بڼو تر مېنځ توپير

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TXiKiBoT (خبرې اترې | ونډې)
و robot Adding: am:ቦሊቪያ
Xqbot (خبرې اترې | ونډې)
و robot Modifying: af:Bolivië; cosmetic changes
۶ کرښه:
نښان = BoliviaArms.gif |
نخشه = LocationBolivia.png |
national_motto = ''Morir antes que esclavos vivir''<br />[[English language|English]]: ''To die before living as slaves''
|ملي سرود = ''[[Bolivianos, el hado propicio]]'' |
رسمي ژبه = [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]] |
۳۹ کرښه:
HDI_category = <font color="#FFCC00">medium</font> |
زمکنۍ بشپړتيا= [[د بولېويا تاريخ|خپلواکي]] |
established_events = &nbsp;&bull; Date |
established_dates = From [[Spain]]<br />[[August 6]], [[1825]] |
پېسه= [[Boliviano]] |
currency_code = BOB |
time_zone = &mdash; |
utc_offset = -4 |
time_zone_DST = &mdash; |
utc_offset_DST = ? |
cctld = [[.bo]] |
۵۱ کرښه:
footnotes = <sup>1</sup> La Paz is the seat of government; Sucre, the legal capital
}}The '''Republic of Bolivia''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de Bolivia'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe bo'liβi̯a]}}) is a [[landlocked]] [[country]] in central [[South America]]. It is bordered by [[Brazil]] on the north and east, [[Paraguay]] and [[Argentina]] on the south, and [[Chile]] and [[Peru]] on the west.
== تاريخ ==
''Main article: [[History of Bolivia]]''
 
=== Pre-colonial period ===
The [[Andes Mountains|Andean region]] probably has been inhabited for some 5,000 years. Beginning about the 2nd century [[Anno Domini|B.C.]], the [[Tiwanaku]] culture developed at the southern end of [[Lake Titicaca]]. This culture, centered around and named for the great city of Tiwanaku, developed advanced [[architecture|architectural]] and [[agriculture|agricultural]] techniques before it disappeared around [[Anno Domini|A.D.]] [[1200]], probably because of extended [[drought]] (some legends of the Aymará, who claim descendance from the inhabitants of Tiwanaku, indicate that Lake Titikaka rose and flooded the city, causing dispersal of the survivors). Roughly contemporaneous with the Tiwanakan culture, the [[Moxos]] in the eastern lowlands and the [[Mollos]] north of present-day [[La Paz]] also developed advanced agricultural societies that had dissipated by the 13th century A.D. In about [[1450]], the [[Quechua language|Quechua]]-speaking [[Incas]] entered the area of modern highland Bolivia and added it to their empire. They controlled the area until the [[Spain|Spanish]] conquest in [[1535]].
 
=== Colonial period ===
During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called "Upper Peru" or "Charcas" and was under the authority of the Viceroy of [[Lima]]. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata &mdash; modern Sucre). Bolivian [[silver]] mines produced much of the Spanish empire's wealth, and Potosí, site of the famed Cerro Rico &mdash; "Rich Hill" &mdash; was, for many years, the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. A steady stream of enslaved Indians served as labor force. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic wars]], sentiment against colonial rule grew.
 
=== The Republic and economic instability (1809) ===
Independence was proclaimed in [[1809]], but 16 years of struggle followed before the establishment of the republic, named for [[Simón Bolívar]], on [[August 6]], [[1825]] (see [[Bolivian War of Independence]]).
 
During the presidency of Mariscal Andres de Santa Cruz Bolivia enjoyed the most glorious period of her history with great social and economic advancement. Different wars against almost all it's neighbors were fought during this period with sound victories against its enemies but maybe the turning point took place on the fields of Paucarpata where the [[Confederacion Peru-Boliviana]] lead by the glorious [[Mariscal Santa Cruz]] defeated the Chilean and Peruvian rebel armies, on the same field a peace treaty know as the Paucarpata Treaty was signed with the unconditional surrender of the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army, allowing them to go back to Chile with all their arms and equipment intact; later this treaty was discarded by the Chilean parliament. The rebel Peruvians and the Chilean army set of to a new war against Santa Cruz, defeating the Confederation on the fields of Yungay. Using the same arms and equipment Santa Cruz allowed them to carry back home and the later defeat, is at this moment that the Bolivian history will change for ever, after this moment for nearly 60 years, coups and short-lived constitutions dominated Bolivian politics.
 
Going through a vicious economic and political crisis, Bolivia's weakness was demonstrated during the [[War of the Pacific]] ([[1879]]&ndash;[[1883|83]]), when it lost its seacoast, and the adjoining rich [[nitrate]] fields, together with the port of [[Antofagasta]], to [[Chile]]. Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries due to wars. See [[Treaty of Petrópolis]] in 1903 [[Chaco War]] ([[1932]]&ndash;[[1935|35]]).
 
An increase in the world price of [[silver]] brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late [[1800s]]. During the early part of the 20th century, [[tin]] replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed [[laissez-faire]] [[Capitalism|capitalist]] policies through the first third of the century.
 
Living conditions of the indigenous people, who constituted most of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the mines and in nearly feudal status on large estates, they were denied access to education, economic opportunity, or political participation. Bolivia's defeat by [[Paraguay]] in the [[Chaco War]] ([[1932]]&ndash;[[1935|35]]) marked a turning point.
 
=== Rise of the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (1951) ===
The Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the [[1951]] presidential elections, the MNR led the successful 1952 revolution. Under President [[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]], the MNR introduced universal adult suffrage, carried out a sweeping land reform, promoted rural education, and nationalized the country's largest tin mines.
 
Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In [[1964]], a military [[junta]] overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The [[1969]] death of President [[René Barrientos Ortuño]], a former member of the junta elected President in [[1966]], led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder, the military, the MNR, and others installed Col. (later General) [[Hugo Banzer Suárez]] as President in [[1971]]. Banzer ruled with MNR support from [[1971]] to [[1974]]. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency, but [[human rights]] violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in [[1978]], and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil.
 
=== Military governments: García Meza and Siles Zuazo (1978) ===
Elections in 1978, [[1979]], and [[1980]] were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, Gen. [[Luis García Meza Tejada]] carried out a ruthless and violent coup that did not have popular support. He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. (At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, "Bueno, me quedo," or, "All right; I'll stay [in office]." He was deposed shortly thereafter.) His government was notorious for human rights abuses, [[narcotics]] trafficking, and economic mismanagement; during his presidency the inflation that would later cripple the Bolivian economy could already be felt. Later convicted in absentia for crimes including murder, García Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year [[Prison|sentence]] in [[1995]].
 
After a military rebellion forced out García Meza in [[1981]], three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the [[Congress of Bolivia|Congress]] elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October [[1982]], twenty-two years after the end of his first term of office (1956-60), [[Hernán Siles Zuazo]] again became President. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic mismanagement and weak leadership, forced him to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term.
 
=== Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy (1993) ===
Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic change undertaken by the Sánchez de Lozada government was the "capitalization" program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises, such as the state [[Petroleum|oil]] corporation, [[telecommunications]] system, [[airline]]s, [[railroad]]s, and electric utilities in return for agreed upon capital investments. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from [[1994]] through [[1996]]. The Sánchez de Lozada government pursued a policy of offering monetary compensation for voluntary eradication of illegal coca by its growers in the Chapare region. The policy produced little net reduction in coca, and in the mid-1990s Bolivia accounted for about one-third of the world's coca going into [[cocaine]].
 
۹۸ کرښه:
A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former president [[Paz Zamora]], virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on [[August 6]] he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-[[political corruption|corruption]], and social inclusion.
 
=== Social Crisis and the nationalization of hydrocarbon resources (2000-2005) ===
In April 2000, the social movements in Bolivia got together to protest the privatization of water provision in Cochabamba. Three years earlier, the government had sold rights to manage water in the city to Aguas del Tunari, a conglomerate led by Bechtel corporation. After making investments, the company raised water prices dramatically. They also made drawing water from community wells or gathering rainwater illegal, giving Aguas del Tunari exclusive rights. Protests that included Cochabamba residents and coca growers turned violent. Roadblocks paralyzed parts of the country. The protesters were helped along by policemen, who took the opportunity to go on strike for higher wages. Finally the government gave into the protesters demands and revoked the water contract. It was an unprecedented moment of unity for the Bolivian social movements against neoliberal reform. <sup>[[#Footnotes|1]]-[[#Footnotes|2]]</sup>
 
During [[February 2003]], four-year economic recession, tight fiscal situation, and widespread corruption inside the government mounted again in a police revolt that nearly toppled the government of President Sánchez de Lozada; several days of unrest left more than 30 persons dead. The government stayed in power but remained unpopular. Widespread protests broke out in October and revealed deep dissatisfaction with the government. Approximately 80 people died during the demonstrations which led President Sánchez de Lozada to resign from office on [[October 17]]. In a constitutional transfer of power, Vice President [[Carlos Mesa]] assumed the Presidency and promised to hold a binding referendum on the export of Bolivian natural gas. The referendum took place on [[July 18]], and the electorate voted overwhelmingly in favor of development of the nation's [[hydrocarbon]] resources. Mesa planned to detail the government's development plans in legislation to be introduced to Congress. Mesa enjoyed popularity with the Bolivian public, but he faced the same difficulties &mdash; social divisions, a radical opposition committed to extra-parliamentary action, and an ongoing fiscal deficit &mdash; as the previous administration.
 
On [[June 6]], [[2005]], [[Congress of Bolivia|congress]] was forced to accept the resignation of President [[Carlos Mesa]] as over 80,000 protestors surrounded the presidential palace a demanding nationalization of the gas industry. The indigenous protestors argued that indigenous communities, two thirds of Bolivia's population, were not adequately represented in government. Consequently, the ''campesinos'' and indigenous population, angered by the inequitable dividends paid by the multinational petroleum companies, set up roadblocks throughout the country and placed all the major cities under siege. With Carlos Mesa stranded in the Palace of Plaza Murillo, the congress and senate closed, protestors roamed through the streets of La Paz threatening to drive the "corbateros" (those clothed in suits and ties) from the country.
۱۰۹ کرښه:
''See also: [[Bolivian Gas War]]''
 
=== Evo Morales, Movement toward Socialism ===
The [[Bolivian presidential election, 2005|2005 Bolivian presidential election]] was held on [[December 18]], [[2005]]. The two main candidates were [[Evo Morales|Juan Evo Morales Ayma]] of the [[Movement toward Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement Toward Socialism]] (MAS) Party, and [[Jorge Quiroga]], leader of the [[Democratic and Social Power]] (PODEMOS) Party and former head of the [[Nationalist Democratic Action|Acción Democrática Nacionalista]] (ADN) Party.
 
۱۱۶ کرښه:
His recent presidential election victory has also brought new attention to the U.S. drug war in South America and its heavy emphasis on coca crop eradication. The US-led "Plan Dignidad" (dignity plan), which seeks to reduce coca production to zero, is seen by many Bolivians as an attack on their livelihoods and way of life. Morales has said his government will try to interdict drugs, but he wants to preserve the legal market for coca leaves and promote export of such products as the [[coca herbal tea]].
 
== سياست ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Bolivia]]''
[[Imageدوتنه:Central La Paz Bolivia.jpg|thumbnail|250px|[[La Paz]] is the political capital of Bolivia.]]
The [[1967]] constitution, amended in [[1994]], provides for balanced executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The traditionally strong executive, however, tends to overshadow the [[Congress of Bolivia|Congress]], whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the [[Supreme Court of Bolivia|Supreme Court]] and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system and processes.
 
۱۲۷ کرښه:
Legislative Branch: The ''Congreso Nacional'' ([[National Congress of Bolivia|National Congress]]) has [[Bicameralism|two chambers]]. The ''[[Chamber of Deputies of Bolivia|Cámara de Diputados]]'' ([[Chamber of Deputies]]) has 130 members, elected to five-year terms by proportional representation. The ''[[Senate of Bolivia|Cámara de Senadores]]'' ([[Senate|Chamber of Senators]]) has 27 members (three per department), elected to five-year terms by proportional representation.
 
== اداري وېش ==
''Main article: [[Departments of Bolivia]]''
 
۱۴۴ کرښه:
Additionally, each department is further divided into provinces, or ''provincias'', cantons, or ''cantones'', and municipalities, or ''municipalidades'', which handle local affairs.
 
== جغرافيه ==
[[Imageدوتنه:Bl-map.png|right|framed|Map of Bolivia]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Bolivia]]''
 
۱۵۲ کرښه:
Major cities are [[La Paz]], [[Santa Cruz, Bolivia|Santa Cruz de la Sierra]] and [[Cochabamba, Bolivia|Cochabamba]].
 
== اقتصاد ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Bolivia]]''
 
۱۸۳ کرښه:
''Main article: [[Demographics of Bolivia]]''
 
Bolivia is one of only three countries in Latin America whose largest population segment is comprised of unmixed [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|AmerindianAmerindians]]s - the other two being [[Guatemala]] and [[Peru]]. Bolivia's ethnic distribution is estimated to be 33% [[Quechua language|Quechua]] and 30% [[Aymara]] Amerindians, 25% [[Mestizo]] (mixed Amerindian and European) and 12% European. The largest of the approximately three-dozen indigenous groups are the Quechua-speaking groups (2.5 million), the Aymara (2 million), [[Chiquitano]] (180,000), and [[Guaraní]] (125,000). There are small German, Italian, American, Basque, Croatian, Asian (particularly Japanese), Middle Eastern, and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations. Also noteworthy is the Afro-Bolivian community that numbers roughly 1% of the population, descended from African slaves that were transported to work in the altiplano and the mines of Potosi. They are mostly concentrated in the [[Yungas]] region ([[Nor Yungas]] and [[Sud Yungas]] provinces) in the [[La Paz Department, Bolivia|department of La Paz]], some three hours from [[La Paz]] city.
 
Bolivia is one of the least developed countries in South America. Almost two-thirds of its people, many of whom are subsistence farmers, live in poverty. Population density ranges from less than one person per square kilometer in the southeastern plains to about 10 per square kilometer (25&nbsp;per [[square mile|sq.&nbsp;mi]]) in the central highlands. The annual population growth rate is about 2.74% (2002).
۱۹۵ کرښه:
Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include, among others, Guzmán de Rojas, Arturo Borda, María Luisa Pacheco, and Marina Núñez del Prado. Bolivia has rich [[folklore]]. Its regional [[folk music]] is distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual [[carnival]] of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at [[Tarabuco]].
 
== کلتور/فرهڼ ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Bolivia]]''
 
۲۰۲ کرښه:
''See'' [[Music of Bolivia]]
 
== خواړه او څښاک ==
''See'' [[Coca herbal tea]]
 
== ادبيات ==
* Herbert S. Klein, "A Concise History of Bolivia", Cambridge 2003
 
== Footnotes ==
:<sup>1</sup> Jennifer Hattam, "[http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/200109/lol1.asp Who Owns Water]?" ''Sierra'', Sept 2001, v.86, iss.5, p.16.
:<sup>2</sup> PBS Frontline/World "[http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bolivia/ Leasing the Rain]" Video, June 2002
۲۱۴ کرښه:
[[Military of Bolivia]]
 
== باندنۍ تړنې ==
{{sisterlinks|Bolivia}}
'''Government'''
۲۳۷ کرښه:
{{South_America}}
 
[[Categoryوېشنيزه:Bolivia|Bolivia]]
[[Categoryوېشنيزه:Landlocked countries]]
[[Categoryوېشنيزه:South American countries]]
 
[[ace:Bolivia]]
[[af:BoliviaBolivië]]
[[als:Bolivien]]
[[am:ቦሊቪያ]]