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{{وټپوهنه}}
'''سمبالښت''' یا اداره په ټولو سوداګریزو چارو او بشری سازمانونو کی د خلکو یوځای ګومارل د یو ځانګړي غوښتنی او موخی دلاسته راوړلو عمل ته وایی.
Management comprises [[planning]], [[organizing]], [[staffing]], [[leadership|leading]] or directing, and [[Control (management)|controlling]] an [[organization]] (a group of one or more people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. [[Resourcing]] encompasses the deployment and manipulation of [[human resources]], [[financial]] resources, [[technological]] resources, and [[natural resources]].
 
== مخینه ==
Because organisations can be viewed as [[systems]], management can also be defined as human action, including design, to facilitate the production of useful outcomes from a system. This view opens the opportunity to 'manage' oneself, a pre-requisite to attempting to manage others
 
== د سمبالښت ډولونه ==
Management can also refer to the person or people who perform the act(s) of management.
 
== History ==
The verb ''manage'' comes from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''maneggiare'' (to handle — especially tools), which in turn derives from the [[Latin]] ''manus'' (hand). The French word ''mesnagement'' (later ''ménagement'') influenced the development in meaning of the English word ''management'' in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref>[[Oxford English Dictionary]]</ref>
 
== سرچینې==
Some definitions of management are:
* Organisation and coordination of the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in achievement of clearly defined objectives. Management is often included as a factor of production along with machines, materials, and money. According to the management guru [[Peter Drucker]] (1909–2005), the basic task of a management is twofold: [[marketing]] and [[innovation]].
 
* Directors and managers who have the power and responsibility to make decisions to manage an enterprise. As a discipline, management comprises the interlocking functions of formulating corporate policy and organizing, planning, controlling, and directing the firm's resources to achieve the policy's objectives. The size of management can range from one person in a small firm to hundreds or thousands of managers in multinational companies. In large firms the board of directors formulates the policy which is implemented by the chief executive officer.
 
=== Theoretical scope ===
[[Mary Parker Follett]] (1868–1933), who wrote on the topic in the early twentieth century, defined management as "the art of getting things done through people". She also described management as philosophy.<ref>
''Vocational Business: Training, Developing and Motivating People'' by Richard Barrett - Business & Economics - 2003. - Page 51.
</ref>
One can also think of management functionally, as the action of measuring a quantity on a regular basis and of adjusting some initial [[plan]]; or as the actions taken to reach one's intended [[goal]]. This applies even in situations where planning does not take place. From this perspective, Frenchman [[Henri Fayol]]<ref>
''Administration industrielle et générale - prévoyance organisation - commandment, coordination – contrôle'', Paris : Dunod, 1966
</ref>
considers management to consist of seven [[function (engineering)|functions]]:
 
# [[planning]]
# [[organizing]]
# [[leadership|leading]]
# [[coordination|coordinating]]
# [[Control (management)|controlling]]
# [[staffing]]
# [[Motivation|motivating]]
 
Some people, however, find this definition, while useful, far too narrow. The phrase "management is what managers do" occurs widely, suggesting the difficulty of defining management, the shifting nature of definitions, and the connection of managerial practices with the existence of a managerial [[cadre]] or [[social class|class]].
 
One habit of thought regards management as equivalent to "business administration" and thus excludes management in places outside [[commerce]], as for example in [[Charitable organization|charities]] and in the [[public sector]]. More realistically, however, every organization must manage its work, people, processes, technology, etc. in order to maximize its effectiveness. Nonetheless, many people refer to university departments which teach management as "[[business school]]s." Some institutions (such as the [[Harvard Business School]]) use that name while others (such as the [[Yale School of Management]]) employ the more inclusive term "management."
 
English speakers may also use the term "management" or "the management" as a collective word describing the managers of an organization, for example of a [[corporation]]. Historically this use of the term was often contrasted with the term [[Industrial relations|"Labor"]] referring to those being managed.
 
=== Nature of managerial work ===
In for-profit work, management has as its primary function the satisfaction of a range of [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]]. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing rewarding employment opportunities (for employees). In nonprofit management, add the importance of keeping the faith of donors. In most models of management/[[governance]], shareholders vote for the [[board of directors]], and the board then hires senior management. Some organizations have experimented with other methods (such as employee-voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers; but this occurs only very rarely.
 
In the [[public sector]] of countries constituted as [[representative democracy|representative democracies]], voters elect politicians to public office. Such politicians hire many managers and administrators, and in some countries like the [[United States]] political appointees lose their jobs on the election of a new president/governor/mayor.
 
== Historical development ==
Difficulties arise in tracing the history of management. Some see it (by definition) as a late modern (in the sense of late [[modernity]]) conceptualization. On those terms it cannot have a pre-modern history, only harbingers (such as [[Steward (office)|stewards]]). Others, however, detect management-like-thought back to [[Sumeria]]n traders and to the builders of the pyramids of [[ancient Egypt]]. Slave-owners through the centuries faced the problems of exploiting/motivating a dependent but sometimes unenthusiastic or recalcitrant workforce, but many pre-industrial [[business|enterprises]], given their small scale, did not feel compelled to face the issues of management systematically. However, innovations such as the spread of [[Arabic numerals]] (5th to 15th centuries) and the codification of [[Double-entry bookkeeping system|double-entry book-keeping]] (1494) provided [[management tool|tools]] for management assessment, planning and control.
 
Given the scale of most commercial operations and the lack of mechanized record-keeping and recording before the [[industrial revolution]], it made sense for most [[ownership|owners]] of enterprises in those times to carry out management functions by and for themselves. But with growing size and complexity of organizations, the split between owners (individuals, industrial dynasties or groups of [[shareholder]]s) and day-to-day managers (independent specialists in planning and control) gradually became more common.
 
===Early writing===
While management has been present for millennia, several writers have created a background of works that assisted in modern management theories.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p19">{{cite book
| last = Gomez-Mejia
| first = Luis R.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy
| title = Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition
| publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]]
| date = 2008
| location = New York, New York USA
| pages = 19
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 978-0-07-302743-2}}</ref>
 
====Sun Tzu's ''The Art of War''====
Written by Chinese general [[Sun Tzu]] in the 6th century BC, ''[[The Art of War]]'' is a military strategy book that, for managerial purposes, recommends being aware of and acting on strengths and weaknesses of both a manager's organization and a foe's.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p19" />
 
==== Niccolò Machiavelli's ''The Prince'' ====
Believing that people were motivated by self-interest, [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] wrote ''[[The Prince]]'' in 1513 as advice for the leadership of [[Florence]], Italy.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20">{{cite book
| last = Gomez-Mejia
| first = Luis R.
| authorlink =
| coauthors = David B. Balkin and Robert L. Cardy
| title = Management: People, Performance, Change, 3rd edition
| publisher = [[McGraw-Hill]]
| date = 2008
| location = New York, New York USA
| pages = 20
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 978-0-07-302743-2}}</ref> Machiavelli recommended that leaders use fear—but not hatred—to maintain control.
 
==== Adam Smith's ''The Wealth of Nations'' ====
Written in 1776 by [[Adam Smith]], a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Ethics|moral philosopher]], ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' aims for efficient organization of work through [[Specialization of labor]].<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20" /> Smith described how changes in processes could boost productivity in the manufacture of [[Pin (device)|pins]]. While individuals could produce 200 pins per day, Smith analyzed the steps involved in manufacture and, with 10 specialists, enabled production of 48,000 pins per day.<ref name="management_gomez-mejia_p20" />
 
=== 19th century ===
Classical economists such as [[Adam Smith]] (1723 - 1790) and [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806 - 1873) provided a theoretical background to [[resource allocation|resource-allocation]], [[production, costs, and pricing|production]], and [[pricing]] issues. About the same time, innovators like [[Eli Whitney]] (1765 - 1825), [[James Watt]] (1736 - 1819), and [[Matthew Boulton]] (1728 - 1809) developed elements of technical production such as [[standardization]], [[quality control|quality-control]] procedures, [[cost accounting|cost-accounting]], interchangeability of parts, and [[plan|work-planning]]. Many of these aspects of management existed in the pre-1861 slave-based sector of the [[United States of America|US]] economy. That environment saw 4 million people, as the contemporary usages had it, "managed" in profitable quasi-[[mass production]].
 
By the late 19th century, [[marginal theory of value|marginal economists]] [[Alfred Marshall]] (1842 - 1924), [[Léon Walras]] (1834 - 1910), and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical underpinnings of management. [[Joseph Wharton]] offered the first tertiary-level course in management in 1881.
 
=== 20th century ===
By about 1900 one finds managers trying to place their theories on what they regarded as a thoroughly scientific basis (see [[scientism]] for perceived limitations of this belief). Examples include [[Henry R. Towne]]'s ''Science of management'' in the 1890s, [[Frederick Winslow Taylor]]'s ''[[The Principles of Scientific Management]]'' (1911), [[Frank Bunker Gilbreth|Frank]] and [[Lillian Moller Gilbreth|Lillian Gilbreth]]'s ''Applied motion study'' (1917), and [[Henry L. Gantt]]'s charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first [[college]] management [[textbook]] in 1911. In 1912 [[Yoichi Ueno]] introduced [[Taylorism]] to [[Japan]] and became first [[management consultant]] of the "Japanese-management style". His son [[Ichiro Ueno]] pioneered Japanese [[quality assurance]].
 
The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. The [[Harvard Business School]] invented the [[Master of Business Administration]] degree (MBA) in 1921. People like [[Henri Fayol]] (1841 - 1925) and [[Alexander Hamilton Church|Alexander Church]] described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordway Tead (1891 - 1973), [[Walter Scott]] and J. Mooney applied the principles of [[psychology]] to management, while other writers, such as [[Elton Mayo]] (1880 - 1949), [[Mary Follett|Mary Parker Follett]] (1868 - 1933), [[Chester Barnard]] (1886 - 1961), [[Max Weber]] (1864 - 1920), [[Rensis Likert]] (1903 - 1981), and [[Chris Argyris]] (1923 - ) approached the phenomenon of management from a [[sociology|sociological]] perspective.
 
[[Peter Drucker]] (1909 – 2005) wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: ''Concept of the Corporation'' (published in 1946). It resulted from [[Alfred Sloan]] (chairman of [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] until 1956) commissioning a study of the [[organisation]]. Drucker went on to write 39 books, many in the same vein.
 
H. Dodge, [[Ronald Fisher]] (1890 - 1962), and Thornton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management-studies. In the 1940s, [[Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett|Patrick Blackett]] combined these statistical theories with [[microeconomics|microeconomic]] [[theory]] and gave birth to the [[science]] of [[operations research]]. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science" (but distinct from Taylor's [[scientific management]]), attempts to take a [[science|scientific]] approach to solving management problems, particularly in the areas of [[logistics]] and operations.
 
Some of the more {{As of|2006|alt=recent}} developments include the [[Theory of Constraints]], [[management by objectives]], [[reengineering]], [[Six Sigma]] and various [[information technology|information-technology]]-driven theories such as [[agile software development]], as well as group management theories such as [[Cog's Ladder]].
 
As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of the art/science of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for [[business philosophies and popular management theories|popularised systems of management ideas]] to peddle their wares. In this context many [[management fad]]s may have had more to do with [[pop psychology]] than with scientific theories of management.
 
Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches, namely:
* [[Human resources|Human resource]] management
* [[Operations management]] or production management
* [[Strategic management]]
* [[Marketing management]]
* [[Finance|Financial management]]
* [[Information technology management]] responsible for [[management information systems]]
 
=== 21st century ===
In the 21st century observers find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, one tends to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management.
 
Branches of management theory also exist relating to [[Non-profit organization|nonprofits]] and to government: such as [[public administration]], [[public management]], and educational management. Further, management programs related to [[civil society|civil-society]] organizations have also spawned programs in [[nonprofit management]] and [[social entrepreneurship]].
 
Note that many of the assumptions made by management have come under attack from [[business ethics]] viewpoints, [[critical management studies]], and [[anti-corporate activism]].
 
As one consequence, [[workplace democracy]] has become both more common, and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among the workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue, and may occur more naturally than does a [[command hierarchy]]. All management to some degree embraces democratic principles in that in the long term workers must give majority support to management; otherwise they leave to find other work, or go on strike. Despite the move toward workplace democracy, command-and-control organization structures remain commonplace and the ''de facto'' organization structure. Indeed, the entrenched nature of command-and-control can be seen in the way that recent layoffs have been conducted with management ranks affected far less than employees at the lower levels of organizations. In some cases, management has even rewarded itself with bonuses when lower level employees have been laid off.<ref>Craig, S. (2009, January 29). Merrill Bonus Case Widens as Deal Struggles. ''Wall Street Journal''. [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123318892645426723.html?mod=googlenews_wsj]</ref>
 
==Management topics==
===Basic functions of management===
Management operates through various functions, often classified as planning, organizing, leading/directing, and controlling/monitoring.
* '''Planning''': Deciding what needs to happen in the future (today, next week, next month, next year, over the next 5 years, etc.) and generating [[plan]]s for action.
* '''Organizing''': (Implementation) making optimum use of the resources required to enable the successful carrying out of plans.
* '''Staffing''': Job Analyzing, recruitment, and hiring individuals for appropriate jobs.
* '''Leading/directing''': Determining what needs to be done in a situation and getting people to do it.
* '''Controlling/Monitoring''', checking progress against plans, which may need modification based on feedback.
 
===Formation of the business policy===
* The '''mission''' of the business is its most obvious purpose -- which may be, for example, to make soap.
* The '''vision''' of the business reflects its aspirations and specifies its intended direction or future destination.
* The '''objectives''' of the business refers to the ends or activity at which a certain task is aimed.
* The business's '''policy''' is a guide that stipulates rules, regulations and objectives, and may be used in the managers' decision-making. It must be flexible and easily interpreted and understood by all employees.
* The business's '''strategy''' refers to the coordinated plan of action that it is going to take, as well as the resources that it will use, to realize its vision and long-term objectives. It is a guideline to managers, stipulating how they ought to allocate and utilize the factors of production to the business's advantage. Initially, it could help the managers decide on what type of business they want to form.
 
==== How to implement policies and strategies ====
* All policies and strategies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff.
* Managers must understand where and how they can implement their policies and strategies.
* A plan of action must be devised for each department.
* Policies and strategies must be reviewed regularly.
* Contingency plans must be devised in case the environment changes.
* Assessments of progress ought to be carried out regularly by top-level managers.
* A good environment and team spirit is required within the business.
* The missions, objectives, strengths and weaknesses of each department must be analysed to determine their roles in achieving the business's mission.
* The '''forecasting method''' develops a reliable picture of the business's future environment.
* A '''planning unit''' must be created to ensure that all plans are consistent and that policies and strategies are aimed at achieving the same mission and objectives.
All policies must be discussed with all managerial personnel and staff that is required in the execution of any departmental policy.
* Organizational change is strategically achieved through the implementation of the eight-step plan of action established by [[John Kotter|John P. Kotter]]: Increase urgency, get the vision right, communicate the buy-in, empower action, create short-term wins, don't let up, and make change stick.
<ref>[[John Kotter|Kotter, John P.]] & Dan S. Cohen. (2002). ''The Heart of Change''. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.</ref>
 
====Where policies and strategies fit into the planning process====
* They give mid- and lower-level managers a good idea of the future plans for each department in an organization.
* A framework is created whereby plans and decisions are made.
* Mid- and lower-level management may add their own plans to the business's strategic ones.
 
=== multi-divisional management hierarchy ===
The management of a large organization may have three levels:
 
# [[Senior management]] (or "top management" or "upper management")
# [[Middle management]]
# Low-level management, such as [[supervisor]]s or [[team leader|team-leaders]]
# Foreman
# Rank and File
 
;Top-level management
* Require an extensive knowledge of management roles and skills.
* They have to be very aware of external factors such as markets.
* Their decisions are generally of a long-term nature
* Their decisions are made using analytic, directive, conceptual and/or behavioral/participative processes
* They are responsible for '''strategic''' decisions.
* They have to chalk out the plan and see that plan may be effective in the future.
* They are executive in nature.
 
;Middle management
* Mid-level managers have a specialized understanding of certain managerial tasks.
* They are responsible for carrying out the decisions made by top-level management.
 
;Lower management
* This level of management ensures that the decisions and plans taken by the other two are carried out.
* Lower-level managers' decisions are generally short-term ones.
;Foreman / lead hand
* They are people who have direct supervision over the working force in office factory, sales field or other workgroup or areas of activity.
;Rank and File
* The responsibilities of the persons belonging to this group are even more restricted and more specific than those of the foreman.
 
== Areas and categories and implementations of management ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
* [[Accounting management]]
* [[Agile management]]
* [[Applied Engineering (field)]]
* [[Association management]]
* [[Capability Management]]
* [[Change management]]
* [[Conflict management]]
* [[Commercial operations management]]
* [[Communication management]]
* [[Constraint management]]
* [[Cost management]]
* [[Crisis management]]
* [[Critical management studies]]
* [[Customer relationship management]]
* [[Decision making styles]]
* [[Design management]]
* [[Disaster management]]
* [[Distributed management]]
* [[Earned value management]]
* [[Educational leadership|Educational management]]
* [[Engineering Management]]
* [[Environmental management]]
* [[Facility management]]
* [[Financial management]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Forecasting]]
* [[Human resources management]]
* [[Hospital management]]
* [[Information technology management]]
* [[Innovation management]]
* [[Interim management]]
* [[Inventory management]]
* [[Knowledge management]]
* [[Land management]]
* [[Leadership]]
* [[Logistics management]]
* [[Lifecycle management]]
* [[Management on demand]]
* [[Marine fuel management]]
* [[Marketing management]]
* [[Materials management]]
* [[Office management]]
* [[Operations management]]
* [[Organization development]]
* [[Perception management]]
* [[Practice management]]
* [[Program management]]
* [[Project management]]
* [[Process management]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Performance management]]
* [[Product management]]
* [[Public administration]]
* [[Public management]]
* [[Quality management]]
* [[Records management]]
* [[Relationship management]]
* [[Research management]]
* [[Resource management]]
* [[Risk management]]
* [[Rural management]]
* [[Skills management]]
* [[Social entrepreneurship]]
* [[Spend management]]
* [[Spiritual management]]
* [[Strategic management]]
* [[Stress management]]
* [[Supply chain management]]
* [[Systems management]]
* [[Talent manager|Talent management]]
* [[Time management]]
* [[Technology Management]]
{{col-end}}
 
==See also==
{{main|Outline of business management}}
{{MultiCol}}
;Articles
* [[Adhocracy]]
* [[Administration (business)|Administration]]
* [[Certified Business Manager]]
* [[Collaboration]]
* [[Collaborative method]]
* [[Corporate governance]]
* [[Design management]]
* [[Engineering management]]
* [[Evidence-based management]]
* [[Forecasting]]
* [[Futures studies]]
* [[Growth]]
* [[Knowledge visualization]]
* [[Leadership]]
* [[Management consulting]]
* [[Management control]]
* [[Management cybernetics]]
* [[Management development]]
* [[Management fad]]
* [[Managerial Psychology]]
* [[Management science]]
* [[Management styles]]
{{ColBreak}}
* [[Management system]]
* [[Managerialism]]
* [[Micromanagement]]
* [[Macromanagement]]
* [[Middle management]]
* [[Music management]]
* [[Organizational Behavior Management]]
* [[Organizational studies]]
* [[Predictive analytics]]
* [[Project management]]
* [[Public administration]]
* [[Risk]]
* [[Risk management]]
* [[Team building]]
* [[Scientific management]]
* [[Senior management]]
* [[Social entrepreneurship]]
* [[Virtual management]]
* [[Peter Drucker]]'s [[management by objectives]]
* [[Eliyahu M. Goldratt]]'s [[Theory of Constraints]]
* [[Pointy Haired Boss]] — a negative stereotype of managers
 
{{ColBreak}}
 
;Lists
* [[List of basic management topics]]
* [[List of management topics]]
* [[List of marketing topics]]
* [[List of human resource management topics]]
* [[List of economics topics]]
* [[List of finance topics]]
* [[List of accounting topics]]
* [[List of information technology management topics]]
* [[List of production topics]]
* [[List of business law topics]]
* [[List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics]]
* [[List of business theorists]]
* [[List of economists]]
* [[Timeline of management techniques]]
{{EndMultiCol}}
 
== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{refimprove|date=November 2008}}
 
== Externalباندنې linksتړنې ==
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Sloan-School-of-Management/index.htm د سمبالښت کورس]
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://ot.cavarretta.com د سمبالښت په برخه کې څیړنه: لیکښود توکبنسټ او نخشې]
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Sloan-School-of-Management/index.htm Management Courses] at MIT Sloan, OpenCourseWare
* [http://ot.cavarretta.com Research on Organizations: Bibliography Database and Maps]
* [http://atmae.org ATMAE] The Association for Technology, Management, and Applied Engineering
 
[[وېشنيزه:سمبالښتیزې دندې| ]]
 
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