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{{Otheruses2|Novel}}
{{two other uses|the literary concept|the [[Joey Pearson]] album|Novel (album)|the [[Computer software|software]] company|Novell}}
{{distinguish|Novell}}
[[File:2009 new novels in a Berlin bookshop.JPG|thumb|New novels in a [[Berlin]] bookshop, March 2009]]
{{Literature}}
A '''novel''' is a long [[narrative]] in [[literary]] [[prose]]. The genre has historical roots both in the fields of the medieval and early modern [[romance (genre)|romance]] and in the tradition of the [[novella]]. The latter supplied the present generic term in the late 18th century.
A '''novel''' (from French ''nouvelle'' Italian "novella", "new") is an extended, generally [[fiction]]al [[narrative]], typically in [[prose]]. Until the [[eighteenth century]], the word referred specifically to [[short fiction]]s of [[love]] and intrigue as opposed to ''[[romance (genre)|romance]]s'', which were [[epic poetry|epic]]-length works about love and [[adventure]]. Novels are generally between 60,000-200,000 words, or 300-1,300 pages, in length. During the 18th century the novel adopted features of the old romance and became one of the major [[literary genre]]s. It is today defined mostly by its ability to become the object of literary criticism demanding [[artistic merit]] and a specific 'literary' style—or specific literary styles.
 
The further definition of the genre is historically difficult. Most of the criteria (such as [[art|artistic merit]], [[fiction]]ality, a design to create an [[epic (story)|epic]] totality of life, a focus on history and the individual) are arbitrary and designed to raise further debates over qualities that will supposedly separate great works of [[literature]] from a wider and lower "trivial" production. The debates reach back into an early modern discussion of fiction and into simultaneous attempts to redefine the task history in the modern societies. A new field of literature was eventually defined in the 18th century in order to give works of "art" a place of their own – a place novels defend with a focus on the individual and more individualistic narratives. The personal [[memoir]] and the [[autobiography]] are the closest relatives as essentially personal though not necessarily individualistic histories.
 
==Definition==
One meaning of the English word ''novel'' has remained stable: "novel" can still signify what is new owing to its "novelty". When it comes to fiction, however, the meaning of the term has changed over time:
{| style="float:right;"
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|[[File:Gerard ter Borch d. J. 008.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Gerard ter Borch]], young man reading a book c.1680, the format is that of a French period novel.]]
|-
|[[File:Madame de Pompadour.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Madame de Pompadour]] spending her afternoon with a book, 1756 – religious and scientific reading has a different [[iconography]].]]
|-
|[[File:1877-winslow-homer-the-new-novel.jpg|thumb|[[Winslow Homer]], ''The New Novel'' (1877), again reading in a relaxed position]]
|-
|[[File:2009 urban-commuter reading a novel.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Urban]] [[commuter]] reading a novel, Berlin 2009.]]
|}
 
A novel is defined as a fictitious prose narrative of considerable length and complexity, portraying characters and usually presenting a sequential organization of action and scenes.
*The period 1200-1750 saw a rise of the novel (originally a short piece of fiction) rivaling the romance (the epic-length performance). This development, which one could describe as the first rise of the novel, occurred across Europe, though only the Spanish and the English went one step further and allowed the word ''novel'' (Spanish: ''novela'') to become their regular term for fictional narratives.
*The period 1700-1800 saw the rise of a "new romance" in reaction to the production of potentially scandalous novels. The movement encountered a complex situation in the English market, where the term "new romance" could hardly be ventured, after the novel had done so much to transform taste. The new genre also adopted the name ''novel'': this new novel was a work of new epic proportions, with the effect that the English (and Spanish) eventually needed a new word for the original short "novel": The term [[novella]] was created to fill the gap in English; "[[short story]]" brought a further refinement.
 
===A fictional narrative===
The meaning of the term "romance" changed within the same complex process, becoming the word for a love story whether in life or fiction. Other meanings include the musicologist's genre "[[Romance (music)|Romance]]" of a short and amiable piece, or ''[[Romance languages]]'' for the languages derived from [[Latin]] (French, Spanish, Italian, Romanian, and Portuguese).
[[Fiction]]ality and the presentation in a [[narrative]] are the two features most commonly invoked to distinguish novels from histories. In a historical perspective they are problematic criteria. Histories were supposed to be narrative projects throughout the [[early modern period]]. Their authors could include inventions as long as they were rooted in traditional knowledge or in order to orchestrate a certain passage. Historians would thus invent and compose speeches for didactic purposes. Novels can, on the other hand, depict the social, political, and personal realities of a place and period with a clarity and detail historians would not dare to explore.
 
The line between history and novel is eventually drawn between the debates novelists and historians are supposed to address in the West and wherever the Western pattern of debates has been introduced: Novels are supposed to show qualities of [[literature]] and [[art]]. Histories are by contrast supposed to be written in order to fuel a public debate over historical responsibilities. A novel can hence deal with history. It will be analysed, however, with a look at the almost timeless value it is supposed to show in the hands of private readers as a work of art.
==تاريخ==
===لرغونې نړۍ===
[[Image:Defoe Robinson Crusoe Heathcot 1719.gif|thumb|framed|[[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''Robinson Crusoe''; title page of 1719 newspaper edition]]
As [[Pierre Daniel Huet]] noted in 1670, the tradition of epic works went back as far as [[Virgil]] and [[Homer]]. The regular format was verse, suiting the purpose of tradition in a culture of oral performances. Today, we see this tradition as going back even further, to the [[Sumer]]ian ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', and in [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] such as the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''.
 
The critical demand is a source of constant argument: Does the specific novel have these "eternal qualities" of art, this "deeper [[meaning (linguistics)|meaning]]" an [[interpretation (aesthetics)|interpretation]] tries to reveal? The debate itself had positive effects. It allowed critics to cherish fictions that are clearly marked as such. The novel is not a historical [[Literary forgery|forgery]], it does not hide the fact that it was made with a certain design. The word ''novel'' can appear on [[book cover]]s and [[title page]]s; the [[Literary merit|artistic effort]] or the sheer [[suspense]] created can find a remark in a [[preface]] or on the [[blurb]]. Once it is stated that this is a text whose craftsmanship we should acknowledge literary critics will be responsible for the further discussion. The new responsibility (historians were the only qualified critics up into the 1750s) made it possible to publicly disqualify much of the previous fictional production: Both the early 18th-century [[roman a clef]] and its fashionable counterpart, the nouvelle historique, had offered narratives with &ndash; by and large scandalous &ndash; historical implications. Historians had discussed them with a look at facts they had related. The modern [[literary criticism|literary critic]] who became responsible for fictions in the 1750s offered a less scandalous debate: A work is "literature", art, if it has a personal [[narrative]], [[Character (arts)|heroes]] to [[Identification (literature)|identify]] with, fictional [[invention]]s, [[style (fiction)|style]] and suspense &ndash; in short anything that might be handled with the rather personal ventures of [[creativity]] and [[artistic freedom]]. It may relate facts with scandalous accuracy, or distort them; yet one can ignore any such work as worthless if it does not try to be an achievement in the new field of literary works<ref>The process required that histories of literature were written that showed the new context as a historical fact. It is symptomatic that we hardly have any histories of fictional texts published before the 1830s. [[Pierre Daniel Huet]]'s ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans]]'' (1670) became a precursor but it did not trigger a production of comparable histories for the next 100 years. See the [[#The novel as national literature, 19th-century developments|chapter on the 19th century]] for further insight.</ref> &ndash; it has to compete with works of art and invention, not with true histories. The new scandal is if it fails to offer literary merits.
It is more difficult to speak of the influence of the shorter performances of regular [[storytelling]] on the medieval traditions which led to the development of the novel/novella.
 
Historians reacted and left much of their own previous "medieval" and "early modern" production to the evaluation of literary critics. New histories discussed public perceptions of the past &ndash; the decision that turned them into the perfect platform on which one can question historical liabilities in the West. Fictions, allegedly an essentially personal subject matter, became, on the other hand, a field of materials that call for a public interpretation: they became a field of cultural significance to be explored with a critical and (in the school system) didactic interest in the subjective perceptions both of artists and their readers.
There was a third tradition of prose fictions, both in a [[satire|satirical]] mode (with [[Petronius]]' ''Satyricon'', the incredible stories of [[Lucian of Samosata]], and [[Lucius Apuleius]]' proto-[[picaresque]] ''[[The Golden Ass]]'') and a [[hero]]ic strain (with the romances of [[Heliodorus of Emesa|Heliodorus]] and [[Longus]] et al.). The ancient Greek romance was revived by [[Byzantine novel]]ists of the twelfth century. All these traditions were rediscovered in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, ultimately influencing the modern book market.
 
===Romance,Distinct 1000-1500literary prose===
The first so called "romances" had been verse epics in the [[Romance languages|Romance language]] of southern France. Works like [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'' appeared in verse much later.<ref>Huet's definition already notes that prose had not always defined the novel – ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans]]'' (1670), Stephen Lewis' 1715 translation, p.4: "It is required to be in Prose by the Humour of the Times."</ref>
 
Prose &ndash; easy to translate and unlike verse pleasant to read in private silence &ndash; won the market of European fiction in the 15th century and immediately developed a special style with models both in Greek and Roman histories and the traditions of verse narratives. The development of a distinct fictional language was crucial for the genre that did not aim at forging history but at works readers would actually identify and appreciate as fictions.
 
The style that became characteristic of the modern novel is for the [[early modern period]] closely connected to the development of elegance in the [[belles lettres]]. With the beginning of the 16th century the printed market had created a special demand for books that were neither simply published for the non academic audience nor explicitly scientific literature &ndash; but a production of style, of elegance and of class as long as class was rather defined by fashionable behaviour than by a distinct social status. The belles lettres became this field as a compound of genres including modern history and science in the vernaculars, personal memoirs, present political scandal, fiction and poetry. Prose fiction was in this wider spectrum soon the driving force creating the distinct style as it allowed the artistic experiment and the personal touch of the author who could market his or her style as a fashion. Verse, rhetoric and science were by contrast highly restricted areas. Fictional prose remained close to everyday language, to the private letter, to the art of "gallant" conversation, to the personal memoir and travelogue.<ref>[[Pierre Daniel Huet]] summarised the stylistic ambition of fictional prose accordingly in 1670: "It must be compos'd with Art and Elegance, lest it should appear to be a rude undigested Mass, without Order or Beauty", ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans]]'' (1670), Stephen Lewis' 1715 translation, p. 4.</ref>
 
18th-century authors eventually criticized the French ideals of elegance the belles lettres had promoted. A less aristocratic style of English reformed novels became the ideal in the 1740s. The requirements of style changed again in the 1760s when prose fiction became part of the newly formed literary production. The more normal it became to open novels with a simple statement of their fictionality (for example by labelling them as "a novel"), the less interesting it became to imitate true histories with an additional touch of style. Novels of the 1760s such as [[Laurence Sterne|Sterne]]'s ''[[Tristram Shandy]]'' began to explore prose fiction as an experimental field. Novels of the ensuing romantic period played with the fragment and open-endedness. Modern late 19th and early 20th century fiction continued the deconstruction attacking the clear author-reader communication and developing models of texts to be evaluated as such. Modern literary criticism acted in the experimental field as a constant provider of historical models. Authors who write fiction gain critical attention as soon as they search a position in future histories of literature, whether as innovators or traditionalists. The situation is &ndash; in a historical perspective &ndash; new: An awareness of traditions has only grown after the publication of Huet's ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans|Treatise on the Origin of Romances]]'' (1670). It has reached the public only with greater impact since the 1830s.
 
===Media requirements: Paper and print===
The evolution of prose fiction required cheap carrier media. Unlike verse prose can hardly be remembered with precision. Oral traditions had helped prose narrators with stock narrative patterns as employed in [[fairy tales]]<ref>See the article on [[Vladimir Propp]] for the first explorations of these patterns.</ref> and with complex plot structures, whose [[point]] they could only reach if they told the story correctly (the novels of Boccaccio and Chaucer share this mode of construction with modern [[joke]]s, the shortest form of prose narratives still circulating in oral traditions).
 
Extended prose fictions needed paper to preserve their complex compositions. [[Parchment]] had been available before the 1450s, but remained too expensive to be used for histories one would read as a private diversion. Parchment was used for prestigious and presentable volumes of verse epics their owners would have recited on festive occasions (see the ''Troilus and Criseyde'' illustration [[#Romances, 1000–1500|below]]). Prose was otherwise the language of scientific books. Parchments would in their case be bought by libraries. The situation changed in the course of the 14th and 15th centuries when prose legends became fashionable among the female urban elite. The fact that the new audience would read these books again and again for inspirational purposes legitimated the use of parchment in the private context.
 
The availability of paper as a carrier medium changed the situation for prose fiction. Paper allowed the production of cheap books one would not necessarily read twice, books one would buy exclusively for one's private diversion. The modern novel developed with the new carrier medium in Europe in the course of the 15th and 16th centuries. The arrival of the printed book pushed the generic development as it created a special tension between the privacy of the reading act and the publicity of the reading material that was sold in larger editions. The formats [[duodecimo]] and [[octavo]] (or small [[quarto]] in the case of [[chapbooks]]) immediately created books one could read privately at home or in public without the support of a table. To read novels in coffee houses or on journeys became part of the early modern reading culture.<ref>See [[Johann Friedrich Riederer]]'s "Satyra von den Liebes-Romanen", in: ''Die abentheuerliche Welt in einer Pickelheerings-Kappe'', vol. 2 ([[Nürnberg]], 1718) with descriptions of the diverse situations in which people read novels at the beginning of the 18th century at [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1718-liebes-romane.html Marteau].</ref> The reader who immerses him- or herself in the novel with the wish to stay undisturbed (or to be disturbed only with a look at his or her present reading) is here an early modern precursor of the modern commuter reading a novel or putting on head phones with the intention to stay private in the public. A special content matter immediately explored the new reading situations.
 
===Special content: The novel's intricate intimacy===
Whether in 11th-century Japan or 15th-century Europe, prose fiction tended to develop intimate reading situations. Verse epics had been recited to selected audiences (see the ''Troilus and Criseyde'' illustration [[#Romances, 1000–1500|below]]), a reception that had already allowed a greater intimacy than the performance of plays in theatres. The late medieval commercial manuscript production created a market of private books, yet it still required the customer to contact the professional copyist with the book he or she wanted to have copied (see the ''Melusine'' illustration [[#Before literature: The early market of printed books, 1470–1720|below]]) &ndash; a situation that again restricted the development of more private reading experiences. The invention of the printing press anonymised the bookseller-text-reader constellation &ndash; the situation was especially interesting for prose fiction, a subject matter that remained publicly undiscussed almost throughout the early modern period. Booksellers and readers could pretend far into the 18th century not to now more about the particular title the new market of printed books provided. If one wanted to know what others read in novels one had to read them oneself. Prose fiction became in this situation the medium of open secrets, rumours, private and public gossip, a private, unscientific and irrelevant reading matter, yet one of public relevance as one could openly see that the book one was reading had reached the public as part of a larger edition.
 
Individualistic fashions, personal views, intimate feelings, secret anxieties, "conduct" and "gallantry" spread with novels. Love became the typical field of experience romances and novels would focus on, as Huet noted in his early definition: "I call them Fictions, to discriminate them from True Histories; and I add, of Love Adventures, because Love ought to be the Principal Subject of Romance"<ref>Pierre Daniel Huet, ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans]]'' (1670), Stephen Lewis' translation (1715), p.3-4.</ref> Satirical fictions widened the range of subject matter in the 17th and 18th centuries. The reader is invited to personally identify with the novel's characters (whilst historians are supposed to aim at neutrality and a public view on whatever they discuss).
 
The reviewing of fiction changed the situation for the fictional work in the course of the 18th century. It created a public discussion about what people were actually reading in novels. It had at the same moment the potential to divide the market into a sphere to be discussed and a low production critics would only hint at. The subcultures of trivial fiction and of genres to be sold under the counter with [[pornography]] as its most influential field followed the arrival of literary criticism in the 1740s and 1750s.
 
===Length and the epic depiction of life===
{{main|Length of a novel}}
The requirement of length is contested &ndash; in English with greater ferocity than in other languages. It rests on the consensus that the novel is today the longest genre of narrative prose, followed by the novella and the short story. The sequence has been unstable: 17th-century critics had handled the romance as the epic length performance and privileged the novel as its short rival.
 
The question how long a novel has to be &ndash; in order to be more than a novella &ndash; is of practical importance as most of the literary awards have developed a ranking system in which length is also a criterion of importance.<ref>The Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America ''Nebula Award'' [http://www.sfwa.org/awards/faq.htm#6] gives the following guidelines: Novel &ndash; 40,000 words or more; Novella &ndash; 17,500–39,999 words; Novelette &ndash; 7,500–17,499 words; Short Story &ndash; 7,499 words or fewer.</ref> The [[Booker Prize]] has thus aroused a serious debate with its 2007 listing of [[Ian McEwan]]'s ''[[On Chesil Beach]]''. Critics immediately stated that McEwan had at best written a novella.<ref>Cf. a rather unfavourable review in the [http://www.independent.ie/unsorted/features/love-in-england-before-the-60s-started-to-swing-43482.html Irish Independent]: "Ian McEwan's new novel has been greeted with unqualified, sometimes ecstatic, praise from every reviewer in Britain, which may strike some readers here as a bit odd when they read the book. For a start, it's not a novel. It's barely even a novella. In some ways it's more a long short story, built around a single event and involving just two characters &ndash; if it was a play it would be a one-act two-hander."</ref>
 
The requirement of length has been traditionally connected with the notion that epic length performances try to cope with the "totality of life".<ref>[[György Lukács]] ''The Theory of the Novel. A historico-philosophical essay on the forms of great epic literature'' [first German edition 1920], transl. by Anna Bostock (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press, 1971).</ref> The novella is by contrast focused on a point, the short story on a situation whose full dimensions the reader has to grasp in a complex process of interpretation. [[Snoopy]]'s novel ''It Was A Dark And Stormy Night''<ref>[[Charles M. Schulz]]'s original comic strip was published on 12 July 1965. The entire novel was first presented in Charles M. Schulz, ''Snoopy and It Was A Dark And Stormy Night'' (Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971), the present edition (Ravette Publishing, Limited, 2006), ISBN 1841612456, does not contain it any longer; it has also become part of the 1988 TV version of [[Snoopy!!! The Musical (TV special)|''Snoopy!!! The Musical]] [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bZapcomLk7I&feature=related youtube].</ref> which followed the 1965 cartoon in 1971 proves that the requirement of length is actually secondary to the requirement of a certain perspective on life &ndash; which Snoopy can easily offer in 214 words:
{| cellpadding="15"
| style="background:#f9fafb;"|[[File:Snoopy-7-12-65.png|thumb|upright=1.9|[[Snoopy]]'s Novel, 12 July 1965]]
<blockquote>
Part I<br />
[[It was a dark and stormy night]]. Suddenly, a shot rang out! A door slammed. The maid screamed.<br />
Suddenly, a pirate ship appeared on the horizon!<br />
While millions of people were starving, the king lived in luxury. Meanwhile, on a small farm in Kansas, a boy was growing up.<br /><br />
Part II<br />
A light snow was falling, and the little girl with the tattered shawl had not sold a violet all day.<br />
At that very moment, a young intern at City Hospital was making an important discovery. The mysterious patient in Room 213 had finally awakened. She moaned softly.<br />
Could it be that she was the sister of the boy in Kansas who loved the girl with the tattered shawl who was the daughter of the maid who had escaped from the pirates?<br />
The intern frowned.<br />
"Stampede!" the foreman shouted, and forty thousand head of cattle thundered down on the tiny camp. The two men rolled on the ground grappling beneath the murderous hooves. A left and a right. A left. Another left and right. An uppercut to the jaw. The fight was over. And so the ranch was saved.<br />
The young intern sat by himself in one corner of the coffee shop. He had learned about medicine, but more importantly, he had learned something about life.
:THE END
</blockquote>
|}
The text is shorter than most short stories yet definitely a novel thanks to the author's attempts to risk what Lucáks had seen as the "Great epic's" potential to "give form to the extensive totality of life." The difference between the ancient [[Homer]]ian epic and the modern novel is, according to Lucáks, that the new genre is the perfect form to reflect the modern individual's experience of the world: "Equilibrium, coherence and unity" had been features of the ancient epic. A "fragmentary nature of the world's structure" is by contrast the typical experience modern novels provide, so Lucáks. Snoopy's novel indicates that this is basically a convention.
 
==History==
===Etymology===
The present English (and Spanish) word derives from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''novella'' for "new", "news", or "short story of something new", itself from the [[Latin]] ''novella'', a singular noun use of the neuter plural of ''novellus'', diminutive of ''novus'', meaning "new".<ref name="britannica">{{cite web |title= Britannica Online Encyclopedia |url= http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9110453/novel |accessdate= 2 August 2009 |quote= The term novel is a truncation of the Italian word novella (from the plural of Latin novellus, a late variant of novus, meaning "new"), so that what is now, in most languages, a diminutive denotes historically the parent form. The novella was a kind of enlarged anecdote like those to be found in the 14th-century Italian classic Boccaccio's Decameron, each of which exemplifies the etymology well enough. }}</ref> Most European languages have preserved the term "romance" (as in French and German "Roman") for extended narratives. The English and Spanish decisions came with the 17th-century fashion of shorter exemplary histories. See the chapters [[#"Petites histoires" or "novels", 1600-1740|"Petites histoires" or "novels", 1600-1740]] and [[#The words "novel" and "romance"|The words "novel" and "romance"]] in the following.
 
===Antecedents around the world===
[[File:Tosa Mitsuoki 001.jpg|thumb|Paper as the essential carrier: [[Murasaki Shikibu]] writing her ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'' in the early 11th century, 17th-century depiction]]
A significant number of extended fictional prose works predate the novel, and have been cited as its antecedents. While these anticipate the novel in form and, to some extent, in substance, the early European novelists were unaware of most of these works; instead they were influenced by novellas and verse epics.
 
Early works of extended fictional prose include the 6th/7th-century ''[[Daśakumāracarita]]'' by [[Daṇḍin]], the 11th-century ''[[The Tale of Genji|Tale of Genji]]'' by [[Murasaki Shikibu]], the 12th-century ''[[Hayy ibn Yaqdhan]]'' (or ''Philosophus Autodidactus'', the 17th-century Latin title) by [[Ibn Tufail]], the 13th-century ''[[Ibn al-Nafis#Theologus Autodidactus|Theologus Autodidactus]]'' by [[Ibn al-Nafis]], and the 14th-century ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' by [[Luo Guanzhong]].
 
Murasaki Shikibu's ''Tale of Genji'' (1010) shows essentially all the qualities for which works such as [[Madame de La Fayette|Marie de La Fayette]]'s ''[[La Princesse de Clèves]]'' (1678) have been praised: individuality of perception, an interest in character development and psychological observation. Parallel European developments did not occur for centuries, and awaited the time when the availability of paper allowed similar opportunities for composition and reception, allowing explorations of individualistic subject matter. By contrast, Ibn Tufail's ''Hayy ibn Yaqdhan'' and Ibn al-Nafis' ''Theologus Autodidactus'' are works of didactic philosophy and theology rather than private reading pleasure in the style of popular Western novels. In this sense, ''Hayy ibn Yaqdhan'' would be considered an early example of a [[philosophical novel]],<ref name=Jon>Jon Mcginnis, ''Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources'', p. 284, [[Hackett Publishing Company]], ISBN 0-87220-871-0.</ref><ref name=Attar>Samar Attar, ''The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought'', Lexington Books, ISBN 0-7391-1989-3.</ref> while ''Theologus Autodidactus'' would be considered an early theological novel.<ref name=Meyerhof>[[Muhsin Mahdi]] (1974), "''The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn at-Nafis'' by Max Meyerhof, Joseph Schacht", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''94''' (2), p. 232-234.</ref> ''Hayy ibn Yaqdhan'' is also likely to have influenced [[Daniel Defoe]] with its story of a human outcast surviving on an island (the work was available in a new edition shortly before Defoe began his composition).<ref>The latest edition was: ''The Improvement of Human Reason, exhibited in the life of Hai Ebn Yokdhan: written in Arabick above 500 Years ago, by Abu Jaafar Ebn Tophail'' [...] ''newly translated from the original Arabick, by Simon Ockley'' (London: W. Bray, 1711).</ref>
 
Western traditions of the modern novel reach back into the field of verse epics, though again not in an unbroken tradition. The [[Sumer]]ian ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' (1300-1000 BC), [[Indian epic poetry|Indian epics]] such as the ''[[Ramayana]]'' (400 BCE and 200 CE) and ''[[Mahabharata]]'' (4th century BC) were as unknown in early modern Europe as the Anglo-Saxon epic of [[Beowulf]] (c. 750-1000 rediscovered in the late 18th and early 19th centuries).
 
[[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]'' (9th or 8th century BC), [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'' (29-19 BC) were read by Western scholars since the Middle Ages. At the beginning of the 18th century, modern French prose translations brought Homer to a wider public, who accepted them as forerunners of the modern novel.<ref>[[Anne Dacier]]'s translations, 1699 and 1708, turned Homer's verses into prose and generated an uproar among European intellectuals, who were surprised about the archaic tone they showed.</ref>
 
Ancient prose narratives<ref>Good surveys are: John Robert Morgan, Richard Stoneman, ''Greek fiction: the Greek novel in context'' (Routledge, 1994), Niklas Holzberg, ''The ancient novel: an introduction'' (Routledge, 1995), Gareth L. Schmeling (hrsg.), ''The Novel in the Ancient World'' (Leiden and Boston: Brill, 1996) and Tim Whitmarsh (hrsg.) ''The Cambridge companion to the Greek and Roman novel'' (Cambridge University Press 2008).</ref> included a didactic strand with [[Plato]]'s dialogs, a satirical with [[Petronius]]' ''[[Satyricon]]'', the incredible stories of [[Lucian of Samosata]], and [[Lucius Apuleius]]' proto-[[picaresque]] ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' and a heroic production with the romances of [[Heliodorus of Emesa|Heliodorus]] and [[Longus]].
 
It is less easy to define the traditions of short fictions that led to the medieval novella. Jokes would fall into the broad history of the "exemplary story" that gave rise to the more complex forms of novelistic story telling. The [[Bible]] is filled with similes and stories to be interpreted. Fiction is, as [[Pierre Daniel Huet]] noted in his ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans]]'' in 1670, a rather universal phenomenon, and at the same moment one that lacks a single cause.
 
The problem of roots is matched by a problem of branches: the inventions of paper and [[movable type]] helped isolated genres come together into a single market of exchange and awareness. The first languages of this new market were Spanish, French, German, Dutch and English. The rise of the United States, Russia, Scandinavia and Latin America broadened the spectrum in the 19th century. A later wave of new literatures brought forth Asian and African novelists. The novel has become a global medium of national awareness, surrounded and encouraged in each country by a complex of literary criticism and literary awards. The relatively late emergence of the Russian, Latin American or African novel does not necessarily indicate lagging cultural progress leading only at a late date to the individuality that brought forth the modern novel: it may just as easily reflect late arrival of such necessary material factors as print, paper, and a marketplace.
 
===The medieval romance and its rivals of shorter works===
====Romances, 1000–1500====
{{main|Romance (genre)}}
[[Image:Chaucer Troilus frontispiece.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] reciting ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'': early 15th-century manuscript of the work at [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]]]]
The European tradition of the novel as the genre of extended prose fiction is rooted in the tradition of medieval "romances". Even today, most European languages make that clear by using the word ''roman'' roughly the way that English uses the word ''novel''. The word ''novel'' claims roots in the European ''novella''.<ref name="britannica"/> Yet, epic length or the focus on a central hero giving the work its name (as in ''Robinson Crusoe'' or ''Oliver Twist'') are features derived from the tradition of "romances". The early modern novel had preferred titles that focused on curious examples of modern life, not on heroes.
 
The word ''roman'' or ''romance'' had become a stable generic term by the beginning of the 13th century, as in the ''[[Roman de la Rose]]'' (c. 1230), famous today in English through [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s late 14th-century translation. The term linked fictions back to the histories that had appeared in the ''Romance'' language of 11th and 12th-century southern France. The central subject matter was initially derived from Roman and Greek historians. Works of the ''[[Chanson de geste]]'' tradition revived the memory of ancient [[Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)|Thebes]], [[Dido (Queen of Carthage)|Dido]] and [[Aeneas]], and [[Alexander the Great]]. German and Dutch adaptations of the famous histories appeared in the late 12th and early 13th centuries.<ref>See [[Heinrich von Veldeke]]'s ''Eneas Romance'' written around 1175 or [[Herbort von Fritzlar]]'s ''Liet von troye'' (c. 1195).</ref> Chaucer's ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' (1380-87) is a late example of this European fashion.
The word ''romance'' seems to have become the label of romantic fictions because of the "Romance" language in which early (11th and twelfth century) works of this genre were composed. The most fashionable genres developed in southern [[France]] in the late twelfth century and spread east- and northwards with translations and individual national performances. Subject matter such as [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] knighthood had already at that time traveled in the opposite direction, reaching southern France from Britain and French Brittany. As a consequence, it is particularly difficult to determine how much the early "romance" owed to [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] models and how much to northern folkloric verse epics such as [[Beowulf]] and the [[Nibelungenlied]].
 
The subject matter which was to become the central theme of the genre in the 16th and 17th centuries was initially a branch of a broader genre. [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] histories became a fashion in the late 12th century thanks to their ability to glorify the northern European [[feudal system]] as an independent cultural achievement. The works of [[Chrétien de Troyes]] set an example, in that his plot construction subjected the northern European epic traditions to ancient Greek aesthetics. The typical Arthurian romance would focus on a single hero and lead him into a double course of episodes<ref>For the structural analysis see: Hugo Kuhn's 1948 article on [[Hartmann von Aue|Hartmann's von Aue]], ''Erec'' reprinted in ''Dichtung und Welt im Mittelalter'' (Stuttgart, 1959). p.133-150. See also: Hans Fromm: "Doppelweg", in: ''Werk-Typ-Situation'', ed. Ingeborg Glier et al. ''Festschrift Hugo Kuhn'' (Stuttgart, 1969), p.64-79. The structural analysis has been criticised by Elisabeth Schmid, "Weg mit dem Doppelweg. Wider eine Selbstverständlichkeit der germanistischen Artusforschung", in: ''Erzählstrukturen der Artusliteratur. Forschungsgeschichte und neue Ansätze'', ed. Friedrich Wolfzettel (Tübingen, 1999), p.69-85 and by Friedrich Wolfzettel in his, "Doppelweg und Biographie" in: ''Erzählstrukturen der Artusliteratur. Forschungsgeschichte und neue Ansätze'', ed. F. Wolfzettel (Tübingen, 1999), p.119-141.</ref> in which he would prove both his prowess as an independent knight and his readiness to function as a perfect courtier under King Arthur. The model invited religious redefinitions with the [[quest]] and the [[adventure]] as basic plot elements: the quest was a mission the knight would accept as his personal task and problem. Adventures (from Latin ''advenire'' "coming towards you") were tests sent by God to the knight on the journey, whose course he (the knight) would no longer try to control. The plot framework survived into the world of modern Hollywood movies which still unite, separate and reunite lovers in the course of adventures designed to prove their love and value. Variations kept the genre alive: unexpected and peculiar adventures surprised the audience in romances like ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'' (c. 1380). Satirical parodies of [[knight-errant|knight errantry]] (and contemporary politics) appeared with works such as [[Heinrich Wittenwiler]]'s ''Ring'' (c. 1410).
The standard plot of the early romance was a series of [[adventure]]s. Following a plot framework as old as Heliodorus, and so durable as to be still alive in Hollywood movies, a hero would undergo a first set of adventures before he met his lady. A separation would follow, with a second set of adventures leading to a final reunion. Variations kept the genre alive. Unexpected and peculiar adventures surprised the audience in romances like ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]''. Classics of the romance developed such as the ''[[Roman de la Rose]]'', written first in French, and famous today in English thanks to the translation by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]].
 
The shift from verse to prose dates from the early 13th century. The ''[[Lancelot-Grail|Prose Lancelot]]'' or ''Vulgate Cycle'' includes passages of that period. The collection indirectly lead to [[Thomas Malory]]'s ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'' compilation of the early 1470s.
These original "romances" were verse works, adopting a "high language" thought suitable for heroic deeds and to inspire the emulation of virtues; prose was considered "low", more suitable for satire). Verse allowed the culture of oral traditions to live on, yet it became the language of authors who carefully composed their texts — texts to be spread in writing, thus to preserve the careful artistic composition. The subjects were aristocratic. The textual tradition of ornamented and illustrated handwritten books afforded patronage by the aristocracy or by the monied urban class developing in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, for whom [[knight-errant|knight errantry]] most clearly was a world of fiction and fantasy.
 
Several factors made prose increasingly attractive: this "low" style was less prone to potentially annoying exaggerations; it linked the popular plots to the field of serious histories traditionally composed in prose (compilations such as Malory's ''Le Morte d'Arthur'' claimed to collect a historical sources for the sole purpose of instruction and national edification<ref>See [[William Caxton]]'s preface to his 1485 edition.</ref>). Prose had an additional advantage for translators, who could go directly for meaning, where verse had to be translated by people skilled as poets in the target language. And prose survived language changes: developments such as the [[Great vowel shift]] changed almost all the European languages during the 14th and 15th centuries. Copyists of prose had an easy job to deal with these shifts while those who copied verses saw that rhymes had broken and syllables got lost in almost every second line.
The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries saw the emergence of the first prose romances along with a new book market. This market had developed even before the first printing facilities were introduced: prose authors could speak a new language, a language avoiding the repetition inherent in rhymes. Prose could risk a new rhythm and longer thoughts. Yet it needed the written book to preserve the coincidental formulations the author had chosen. While the [[printing press]] was yet to arrive, the commercial book production trade had already begun. [[Legend]]s, lives of saints and mystical visions in prose were the main object of the new market of prose productions. The urban elite and female readers in upper class households and monasteries read religious prose. Prose romances appeared as a new and expensive fashion in this market. They could only truly flourish with the invention of the printing press and with paper becoming a cheaper medium. Both of these achievements arrived in the late fifteenth century, when the old romance was already facing fierce competition from a number of shorter genres; most salient among these genres was the novel, a form that arose in the course of the fourteenth century.
 
Prose became the medium of the urban commercial book market in the 15th century. Monasteries sold edifying collections of saints' and virgins' lives composed in prose. The customers were mostly women (the interiors of many of the 14th- and 15th-century paintings of the [[annunciation]] show how far books had spread into the urban households that painters usually depicted as the [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|blessed virgin's]] bourgeois environment.<ref>See the annunciations of [[Robert Campin]] (c. 1430) ([[:Image::Robert Campin 006.jpg|Image]]) and [[Rogier van der Weyden]] (c. 1435) ([[:Image:Rogier van der Weyden 030.jpg|Image]]).</ref>) Prose became in this environment the medium of silent and private reading. It spread with the commercial book market that began to provide such reading materials even before the arrival of the first commercial printed histories in the 1470s.<ref>See for a survey of medieval reading practices: Jessica Brantley, ''Reading in the Wilderness: Private Devotion and Public Performance in Late Medieval England'' (University of Chicago Press, 2007).</ref>
===پخواني رومانونه، 1000-1600===
 
====The tradition of the novella, 1200–1600====
[[Image:Canterbury Tales.png|thumb|framed|The Pilgrims diverting each other with tales; woodcut from Caxton's 1486 edition of [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]]'s ''Canterbury Tales'']]
{{main|Novella}}
It is difficult to give a full catalog of the genres that finally culminated — with the ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'' in the 11th century, followed by the works of [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]], [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] and [[Miguel de Cervantes]] — in the original "novel", the production today generally categorized under the term "novella".
[[Image:Canterbury Tales.png|thumb|The Pilgrims diverting each other with tales; woodcut from Caxton's 1486 edition of ''[[Canterbury Tales]]''.]]
The term ''novel'' refers back to the production of short stories that remained part of a European oral culture of storytelling into the late 19th century. Fairy tales, jokes, little funny stories designed to make a point in a conversation, the exemplum a priest would insert in a sermon belong into this tradition. Written collections of such stories circulated in a wide range of products from practical compilations of examples designed for the use of clerics to such poetic cycles as [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]]'s ''[[Decameron]]'' (1354) and [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s ''Canterbury Tales'' (1386-1400).
 
The early modern genre conflict between "novels" and "romances" can be traced back to the 14th-century cycles. The standard scheme of stories the author claimed to have heard in a round of narrators promised variety of subject matter and it led to clashes of genres. Short romances appeared within the [[frame tale]]s side by side with stories of the rivalling lower genres such as the [[fabliaux]].<ref>On Chaucer's tendency to increase the romance's influence see: Joseph Mersand, ''Chaucer's Romance Vocabulary'' (New York, 1939), on the competing novelistic [[fabliaux]] tradition see: Charles Muscatine, ''Chaucer and the French Tradition'' (Berkeley, Los Angeles, 1957).</ref> Individual story tellers would openly defend their tastes in a debate that grew into a [[metafiction]]al consideration.
The early novel was basically any story told for its spectacular or revealing incidents. The original environment — living on with the typical frame settings — was the entertaining conversation. Stories of grave incidents could just as well augment [[sermon]]s. Collections of [[exemplum|examples]] facilitated the work of preachers in need of such illustrations. A [[fable]] could illustrate a moral conclusion; a short historical reflection could do the same. A competition of genres developed. Tastes and social status were decisive, if one believes the medieval collections. The working classes loved their own brand of drastic stories: stories of clever cheating, wit and ridicule levelled against hated social groups (or competitors among the storytellers). Much of the original genre is still alive with the short [[joke]] told in everyday life to make a certain humorous point in a conversation.
 
The cycles themselves showed advantages over the production of rival extended epic-length romances. Romances presupposed a consensus in questions of style and heroism. The cycles shifted the problem of how fictions were to be justified onto the level of the individual storytellers: onto a level the author, Chaucer or Boccaccio, would see as out of his control.<ref>See on the authorial function: George Kane, "The Autobiographical Fallacy in Chaucer and Langland Studies," ''Chambers Memorial Lecture'' (London: HK Lewis, 1965).</ref> The narrators had, so Chaucer in his ''Canterbury Tales'',<ref>See: David Lawton, ''Chaucer's Narrators'' (Woodbridge, Eng., Dover, NH, 1985).</ref> offered these stories to make certain points in a lively conversation he had only chronicled. They attacked each other if they felt the stories of their opponents had missed their points. A competition among the genres developed. If one believes the medieval collections, differing tastes of people with different social statuses were decisive; the different professions fought a battle over precedent with satirical plots designed to ridicule individuals of the opposing trades. A cycle bound rival stories together and it offered the easiest way to keep a critical distance. The pluralistic discourse created here eventually developed into the 17th- and 18th-century debate of fiction and its genres.
Artistic performances included the story within a story: situations in which a series of stories was allegedly told. They rejoiced in a broad pattern of tastes and genres. ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' constitute a classic example, with their noble storytellers fond of "romantic" stories and their lower narrators preferring stories of everyday life. The genre did not have its own generic term. "Novel" would simply denote the novelty of the accident narrated. The inclusion of frame stories, however, brought an awareness of the fact that genres were developing in this field.
 
Much of this original conception of the genre is still alive whenever a short joke is told to make a certain humorous point in everyday conversation. The longer exploits left the sphere of oral traditions with the arrival of the printing press. The book eventually replaced the story teller and introduced the [[preface]] and the [[dedication]] as the [[paratext]]s in which the authors would continue the metafictional debate over the advantages of genres and the reasons why one published and read fictional stories.
The main advantage of the background story was the justification it put into the hands of the actual authors such as Chaucer and Boccaccio. Romances afforded lofty language and relied on an accepted notion of what deserved to be read as high style. Yet what if the taste in moral teachings and poetry changed? Romances quickly became outdated. Stories of cheats and pranks, illicit love affairs, and clever intrigues in which certain respectable professions or the citizens of another town were made fun of were, on the other hand, neither morally nor poetically justifiable. They carried their justification outside. The storyteller would offer a few words explaining why he thought this story was worth telling. Again, Chaucer's ''Canterbury Tales'' afford the best examples: the real author could tell stories without any other justification than that this story gave a good portrait of the person who told it and of his or her taste, and that justification would remain stable throughout history.
 
===Before literature: The early market of printed books, 1470–1720===
If lofty performances grew tedious — as they did in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries with the old plots never leading to newer ones — the collections of tales or novels made it easy to criticise the lofty performances and to reduce their status: one of the group of narrators (created by the actual author) could start with the romantic story only to be interrupted by the other narrators listening within the story. They might silence him or order him to speak a language they liked, or they might ask him to speed up and to make his point. The result was a rise of the short genre. The steps of this development can be traced with the short story gaining in appreciation and value to rival romances in new versified collections at the end of the fourteenth century.
[[File:1477 please copy this history of Melusine.png|thumb|1477: The customer in the copyist's shop with a book he wants to have copied. This illustration of the first printed German [[Melusine]] looked back to the market of manuscripts.]]
Looking back to the scope of [[early modern period|early modern]] histories, mentalities seem to differ. The [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] seems to separate the 21st-century observer from early modern authors and readers of histories and fictions. The grossest improbabilities pervade many historical accounts found in the early modern print market. [[William Caxton]]'s 1485 edition of [[Thomas Malory]]'s ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'' (1471) was sold as a true history, though the story unfolded in a series of magical incidents and historical improbabilities. Witchcraft pervaded the medieval romance, which no one read as "romance" as long as it claimed to be a central text of Great Britain's national memory. [[Sir John Mandeville]]'s ''Voyages'', written in the 14th century, circulated in printed editions throughout the 18th century,<ref>The [[ESTC]] notes 29 editions published between 1496 and 1785 [http://estc.bl.uk/F/YMU7APITB3P8CLP4R6J16RSRKXTRGRN9HE79F36U1UPQP8QVU9-05108?func=short-sort&set_number=093136&sort_option=01---A02---A ESTC search result]</ref> and was filled with natural wonders like the one-footed Ethiopians who use their extremity as an umbrella against the desert sun &ndash; again without becoming the subject of critical historical debates. Both works eventually came to be viewed as works of literature, fiction. The realm of history grew around 1700 into a field of comparatively sober argumentative rather than narrative projects.
 
One can interpret this development as a sign of gradual enlightenment. It stands at the same moment for a new arrangement of discourses the Western nations established beginning with the 1660s. History became in the Western world a secular platform on which all parties, religions, and institutions agree to settle questions of unresolved responsibilities. Historical commissions such as the [[International Catholic-Jewish Historical Commission]] are temporarily established whenever conflicts call for historical decisions. Debates of state and religion had a comparable importance until the beginning of the 18th century. A new positioning of the sciences and a general interest of the 19th-century nation states in controllable and pluralistic secular debates stand behind the process that found its breakthrough with the [[American Revolution|American]] and the [[French Revolution|French]] revolutions and the 19th-century [[unification of Germany]].
===Conflict between novels and romances, 1600-1700===
[[Image:Honour of Chivalry c1715.jpg|thumb|380px|left|The cheap design of chapbooks: ''The Honour of Chivalry'', first published in 1598; title page of an early eighteenth century edition]]
[[Image:Painter Palace-of Pleasure 1566.gif|thumb|190px|right|[[William Painter]]'s ''Palace of Pleasure well furnished with plesaunt Hitorires and excellent Nouvelles'' (1566), "novels" in the original sense of the word.]]
[[Image:Cervantes Novelas Exemplares (1613).png|thumb|190px|right|[[Miguel de Cervantes]]' ''Novelas Exemplares'' (1613)]]
[[Image:Congreve Incognita (1692).png|thumb|190px|right|The ''[...], or [...]'' formula promising an example; here, [[William Congreve (playwright)|William Congreve]]'s ''Incognita'' (1692) promising a reconciliation of love and duty]]
 
The transformation of history from a narrative project designed to instruct and to delight into a platform of open controversies is the one larger process which redefined the place of prose fiction since the Middle Ages. The creation of "literature" as a compound of poetry and fiction is the other. The modern nations won with literature a second field of essentially pluralistic controversies in which the interpretation and collective appreciation of texts gained a new and wider importance.
The invention of printing subjected both novels and romances to a first wave of [[trivia]]lization and commercialization. Printed books were expensive, yet something people would buy, just as people still buy expensive things they can barely afford. Alphabetization, or the rise of [[literacy]], was a slow process when it came to writing skills, but was faster as far as reading skills were concerned. The [[Protestant Reformation]] created new readers of religious pamphlets, [[newspaper]]s and [[broadsheet]]s.
 
Two major incidents fuelled the separation of historical and fictional literature in the 16th and 17th centuries. The invention of printing immediately created a new market of comparatively cheap entertainment and knowledge &ndash; the market of [[chapbooks]]. The more elegant production 17th- and 18th-century authors would propagate as the ''[[belles lettres]]'' &ndash; a market that would be neither low nor academic &ndash; defined its ideals of style in the course of the 17th century. It became the wider sphere in which the modern ensemble of "literary genres" of poetry and fiction gained greater cohesion in late 18th century. The second major development is fixed to a single title: The Portuguese ''[[Amadis de Gaula]]'' became the first best-seller of modern fiction &ndash; a title one would soon be reluctant to accept as part of the elegant ''belles lettres''. The ''Amadis'' eventually became the archetypical "romance" against which the modern novel unfolded its successful wider pattern of genres in the 17th century.
The urban population learned to read, but did not aspire to participation in the world of letters. The market of [[chapbook]]s developing with the printing press comprised both romances and short histories, tales and fables. [[Woodcut]]s were the regular ornament and they were offered without much care. A romance in which the heroic knight had to fight more than ten duels within a few pages could get the same illustration of such a fight again and again if the printer's stock of standard illustrations was small. As their stocks grew, printers repeated the same illustrations in other books with similar plots, mixing these illustrations without respect to style. One can open eighteenth century chapbooks and find illustrations from the early years of printing next to much more modern ones.
 
====Trivializations: Chapbooks, 1470-1800====
Romances were reduced to cheap and abrupt plots resembling modern [[comic book]]s; neither were the first collections of novels necessarily prestigious projects. They appeared with an enormous variety from folk tales over jests to stories told by Boccaccio and Chaucer, now venerable authors.
{{main|Chapbook}}
The invention of printing subjected the existing field of histories &ndash; whether allegedly true, romantic or novel &ndash; to a process of [[trivia]]lization and commercialization. Romances had circulated in lavishly ornamented manuscripts to be read out to audiences. The printed book allowed a comparatively inexpensive alternative for the special purpose of silent reading. Abridgements of ancient historians, popular medieval histories of knights, stories of comical heroes, religious legends and collections of jests and fables were the principal historical subject matter.<ref>See Rainer Schöwerling, ''Chapbooks. Zur Literaturgeschichte des einfachen Lesers. Englische Konsumliteratur 1680-1840'' (Frankfurt, 1980), Magaret Spufford, ''Small Books and Pleasant Histories. Pleasant Fiction and its Readership in Seventeenth-Century England'' (London, 1981) and Tessa Watt, ''Cheap Print and Popular Piety 1550-1640'' (Cambridge, 1990).</ref> Offering suspense and stories the audience could accept as allegedly true, even if they were fantastic and unlikely, the new books reached the households of urban citizens and of country merchants who visited the cities as traders.
 
[[Image:Honour of Chivalry c1715.jpg|thumb|right|Deteriorated design: early 18th-century [[chapbooks|chapbook]] edition of ''[[Belianis|The Honour of Chivalry]]'', first published in 1598.]]
A more prestigious market of romances developed in the sixteenth century, with multi-volume works aiming at an audience which would subscribe to this production. The criticism levelled against romances by Chaucer's pilgrims grew in response to both trivialization and the extended multi-volume "romances". Romances like the ''[[Amadis de Gaula]]'' led their readers into dream worlds of knighthood and fed them with ideals of a past no one could revitalize, or so the critics complained.
[[Literacy]] spread among the urban populations of Europe due to a number of factors:<ref>See Guglielmo Cavallo, Roger Chartier, ''A History of Reading in the West'', transl. by Lydia G. Cochrane (University of Massachusetts Press, 2003), and Jennifer Andersen and Elizabeth Sauer, ''Books and Readers in Early Modern England: Material Studies'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001).</ref> Women of wealthier households had learned to read in the 14th and 15th centuries and had become customers of religious devotion. The [[Protestant Reformation]] enkindled propaganda and press wars that lasted into the 18th century. [[Broadsheet]]s and [[newspaper]]s became the new media of public information. The early modern customers would not necessarily be able to write, yet even writing skills spread among apprentices and women of the middle classes. Business owners were forced to adopt methods of written book-keeping and accounting. The personal letter became a favourite medium of communication among 17th-century men and women as many Dutch period paintings show. The prefaces, the escapist subject matter, and a number of satires on the early consumption of fiction show that cheap histories were especially popular among apprentices and younger urban readers of both sexes.<ref>See Johann Friedrich Riederer German satire on the wide spread reading of novels and romances: "Satyra von den Liebes-Romanen", in: ''Die abentheuerliche Welt in einer Pickelheerings-Kappe'', vol. 2 (Nürnberg, 1718). [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1718-liebes-romane.html online edition]</ref> Norris' and Bettesworth's 1719 edition of ''[[Seven Champions of Christendom|The Seven Famous Champions of Christendom]]'' &ndash; itself a mixture of legend and romance &ndash; ended with a look on the entire spectrum of books the publishers would provide in their shops on [[London Bridge]], a famous location where those who left the city provided themselves with reading materials:
 
<blockquote>
Italian authors like [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]] were among those who brought the novel into a new format: while it remained a story of intrigue, ending in a surprising point, the observations were now much finer: how did the protagonists manage their intrigue? How did they keep their secrets, what did they do when others threatened to discover them?
At the afore-mentioned Place, all Country Chapmen may be furnished with all Sorts of [[Bible]]s, [[Book of Common Prayer|Commonprayers]], [[The New Testament|Testaments]], [[Psalter]]s, [[Alphabet book|Primers]] and [[Horn-books]]; Likewise all Sorts of three [[Popular print|Sheets Histories]], [[Penny History|Penny Histories]], and [[Sermon]]s; and Choice of new and old [[Ballad]]s, at reasonable Rates.<ref>''The Illustrious and Renown'd History of the Seven Famous Champions of Christendom'' (London: T. Norris/ A. Bettesworth, 1719), p.164-168. See [[:de:Volksbuch]] for a longer excerpt of the publisher's [[backlist]].</ref>
</blockquote>
 
[[File:François Rabelais, Gargantua, Lyon, Denis de Harsy, 1537.jpg|thumb|left|[[François Rabelais]] ''[[Gargantua and Pantagruel|Gargantua]]'' (1537).]]
The new market was disregarded by scholars. The texts were offered with promises of great erudition &ndash; to an audience that would not know to distinguish between erudition and the misleading advertisement. The subject matter was extremely conservative. The bestsellers of this market &ndash; books like ''[[Till Eulenspiegel]]'', ''[[Seven Wise Masters|The Seven Wise Masters]]'', ''[[Belianis|Don Belianis of Greece]]'', ''[[Historia von D. Johann Fausten (chapbook)|Dr. Faustus]]'', ''[[The famous history of the valiant London-prentice|The London Prentice]]'', or Sir [[John Mandeville]]'s ''Voyages'' &ndash; went through innumerable editions between 1500 and 1800. One would not buy these books because they were modern and fashionable, but because they were the famous books one had always read and every one had heard of, so the prefaces.
 
The design of these books deteriorated. The texts were copied without much editorship. Standard [[woodcut]] illustrations were repeated, often even within a single book, wherever the plot allowed such repetition. The illustrations began to show peculiar style mixes as the printer's stocks grew: Early 18th-century editions of 16th-century titles would mix woodcuts of 16th-century knights in armor with equally crude depictions 18th-century courtiers wearing wigs.
 
The early modern modern market divide that created a field of low [[chapbooks]] and an alternative market segment of expensive fashionable, elegant [[belles lettres]] can be traced back into the 1530s and 1540s. The ''[[Amadis]]'' and [[François Rabelais|Rablais]]' ''[[Gargantua and Pantagruel]]'' were the most important publications that lead into this divide &ndash; both books that specifically addressed the new customers of popular histories. The ''Amadis'' was a multi volume fictional history of style, so the advertisements, and aroused a debate of style and elegance as it fanned the first reading craze on the market of printed fiction. ''Gargantua and Pantagruel'' had the design of the modern popular history only to satirize its stylistic achievements. The ensuing debate created a gap between "truly elegant" fictions and the conservative bulk of [[chapbooks]]. The market divide became especially visible with books that appeared on both markets in the course of the 17th and 18th centuries: The low market eventually included abridgments of classy books from [[Miguel Cervantes]]' ''[[Don Quixote]]'' (1605/1615)<ref>''The history of the ever-renowned knight Don Quixote de la Mancha containing his many wonderful and admirable atchievements and adventures'' (London: W.O./ H.) is an example here, Wing: 1522:14, today in the possession of the [[British Library]]. The title appeared around 1695 without a date, so that it could be sold over any period of time without appearing to be a shelf warmer. The plot was condensed to a mere 24 pages. The prestigious Peter Motteux edition published in 1706 consisted of (to show the contrast) four volumes each of 400 pages.</ref> to the mutilations of [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' (1719), which infuriated the author with their claim to offer the entire plot without the tedious reflections for but half the price.<ref>The first of these editions was the so called "Amsterdam Coffee House Edition" published by T. Cox on on August 1, 1719. The original Publisher, [[William Taylor (publisher)|Taylor]], threatened to sue Cox and his customers in ''The St. James Post'' (7 August 1719), and repeated his threats in the 2nd edition of vol. 2. Cox replied in the ''The Flying Post'' (29 October 1719). See H. C. Hutchins, Robinson Crusoe ''and Its Printing'' (New York: [[Columbia University Press]], 1925), p.99-100/ 142-45.</ref>
 
The cheap abridgments openly addressed an audience that neither had the money nor the courage to buy books with engravings and fine print. The prefaces of the abridgements promised shorter sentences, more action and less reflection, and the title for half the money.<ref>The ''Contes des fées'' the Comtesse D'Aunois had published in 1698 sold in an English chapbook abridgment with all these promises of the simplified and cheaper reading matter &ndash; the translator in the preface: "I did not attempt this with a Design to follow exactly the French Copy, nor have any regard to our English Translation; which to me, are both tedious and irksome. Nor have I begun some of it many Years since: But to make it portable for your walking Diversion, and less Chargeable: and chiefly to set aside the Distances of Sentences and Words, which not only dissolve the Memory, but keep the most nice and material Intrigues, from a close Connexion." ''The History of the Tales of the Fairies. Newly done from the French'' (London: E. Tracy, 1716), fol. A<sup>rv</sup>.</ref> The gradual differentiation between fact and fiction that affected the market of the belles lettres in the 17th and 18th centuries barely touched the low market. One could wonder whether the apprentices and peasants who read such books cared about the status [[King Arthur]], [[St. George]] or [[Julius Caesar]] had in the historian's eye. [[William Caxton]]'s preface to [[Thomas Malory]]'s ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'' (1485) set the tone that would allow Sir John Mandeville's ''Voyages'' of the 1360s to continue to be published as a true account of Eastern wonders until the end of the 18th century.
 
====Heroic romances of style and fashion, 1530-1720====
[[File:Amadis-spanish-1533.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Amadis de Gaula|''The Amadis'']], Spanish edition of 1533]]
By the 1550s there existed a section of literature (scientific books) addressing the academic audience and a second market of books for the wider audience. The popular second market developed its own differentiation of class and style. Whilst the lowest strata of chapbooks created an extremely conservative market its antagonist the elegant "[[belles lettres]]" showed a particular design aiming at educated readers of both sexes, though not necessarily at academics. The very term "belles lettres" spoke of the ambition to leave the field of low books and to reach the realm of the sciences, "literature", "les lettres". Polite literature, ''galante Wissenschaften'' (that is sciences addressing both sexes and all readers of taste) were the English and German terminological equivalents. The use of a French loan word belles lettres marked the international aspect of the development. The new market segment comprised poetry, memoirs, modern politics, books of fashion, journals, and such. Autobiographical memoirs, personal journals and prose fiction set the trend in the modern field as the genres that authors could most freely use for experiments of style and personal expression.
 
[[File:ScuderyArtamene.jpg|thumb|left|[[Madeleine de Scudéry]], ''Artamene'' (1654)]]
The evolution of prose fiction needed the elegant market, a market of changing styles and fashions, and it found its central critical debate with the publication of the ''[[Amadis de Gaula]]'' in the 1530s. Two questions moved into the centre of the debate as Spanish, French and German translations and imitations flooded the European market.<ref>See Hilkert Weddige, ''Die "Historien vom Amadis auss Franckreich": Dokumentarische Grundlegung zur Entstehung und Rezeption'' (Beitrage zur Literatur des XV. bis XVIII. Jahrhunderts ; vol. 2) (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1975).</ref> The first was a question of style and fashion: the ''Amadis'' had moved back into the Arthurian Middle Ages, into a world of quests, knights and adventures, though it had turned its princes and princesses into paragons of style and elegance. Was this what one had to expect of modern prose fiction? The second problem was connected with the unprecedented public reaction: the ''Amadis'' became the object of a widespread reading craze. Could a market of style and distinguished taste allow such a development?
 
By 1600 the ''Amadis'' had become the detested epitome of the modern romance. A search for alternative subject matters had begun. The biographies of Greek and Roman historians became the most important source here. [[Heliodorus of Emesa|Heliodorus]]' romances were to be followed in matters of style and composition,<ref>See on the early modern reception of Greek romances: Georges Molinié, ''Du roman grec au roman baroque. Un art majeur du genre narratif en France sous Louis XIII'' (Toulouse, Presses universitaires du Mirail, 1995).</ref> whilst the heroes turned from knights to princes and princesses acting now in ancient courts. The standard plot of adventures gave way to a new plot of love facing intrigues, attacks, rivalry and adversity. A new art of character observation unfolded.
 
The works that gained the greatest fame &ndash; [[Honoré d'Urfé]]'s ''L'Astrée'' (1607-27), [[John Barclay]]'s ''Argenis'' (1625-26), [[Madeleine de Scudéry]]"s ‚''Clelie'' or [[Anthony Ulrich, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel|Anton Ulrich von Braunschweig's]] ''Römischer Octavia'' (''Octavia the Roman'', 1679-1714) &ndash; were esteemed both as explorations of the ancient world and as works one would read with an interest in modern life. They encapsulated present histories clad in ancient costumes and dove into the realm of the [[roman à clef]], the novel readers would decipher with a key that betrayed who was who within this fictional world. The present fashions of courtly conduct could in the event be found nowhere in such perfection as in these seemingly historical romances. Readers used them as models for their own elegant compliments, letters, and speeches.
 
The genre had much in common with the production of French and Italian operas in the same period. It found trivializations with a special brand of escapist "Asian" Romances which led into the ancient empires of Assyria, Persia, India. The latter were particularly fashionable among urban female French and German readers of the younger generation, who would dream of sharing the escapes of princesses from all sorts of adversities. The individual European markets reacted differently on these fashions. The craving had a particularly short life in England where it began in the 1650s only to end in the 1670s, as these romantic plots fell out of fashion.
 
====Satirical romances, 1500-1780====
[[File:Richard Head 1666.png|thumb|[[Richard Head]], ''The English Rogue'' (1665)]]
Stories of witty cheats were an integral part of the European novella with its tradition of [[fabliaux]]. Several collections knitted such stories to individual heroes who developed personal and national features. Germany's ''[[Till Eulenspiegel]]'' (1510) was the hero of chapbooks in and outside Germany. The Spanish ''[[Lazarillo de Tormes]]'' (1554) represented a transition from a collection of episodes towards the story of the life of a central character, the hero of the work. [[Grimmelshausen]]'s ''[[Der abenteuerliche Simplicissimus|Simplicissimus Teutsch]]'' (1666-1668) took a further step along this path, as its hero experienced recent world history, in this case the history of the [[Thirty Years' War]] that had devastated Germany. [[Richard Head]]'s ''The English Rogue'' (1665) is rooted in this tradition (the English preface mentions the precedents; the German translation that appeared in 1672 sold the book as an English equivalent of the German ''Simplicissimus''). The tradition that developed with these titles focused on a hero and his life. The adventures led to satirical encounters with the real world with the hero either becoming the pitiable victim or the rogue who exploited the vices of those he met.
 
A second tradition of satirical romances can be traced back to [[Heinrich Wittenwiler]]'s ''Ring'' (c. 1410) and to [[François Rabelais]]' ''[[Gargantua and Pantagruel]]'' (1532-1564). It was rather designed to parody and satirize heroic romances, and did this mostly by dragging them into the low realm of the burlesque. Cervantes' ''[[Don Quixote]]'' (1606/1615) modified the satire of romances: its hero lost contact with reality by reading too many romances in the Amadisian tradition.
 
Both branches of satirical production seem to have addressed a predominantly male audience (women are despicable victims in titles like Head's ''The English Rogue''). They found the appreciation of critics as long as they revealed the weaknesses of the ''Amadis''. The critics otherwise deplored that the satires could not offer alternatives. Other important works of the tradition are [[Paul Scarron]]'s ''Roman Comique'' with its explicit discussions of the market of fictions, the anonymous French ''Rozelli'' with its satire on Europe's religions, [[Alain-René Lesage]]'s ''[[Gil Blas]]'' (1715-1735), [[Henry Fielding]]'s ''[[Joseph Andrews]]'' (1742) and ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]'' (1749), and [[Denis Diderot]]'s ''[[Jacques the Fatalist]]'' (1773, printed posthumously in 1796).<ref>Compare also: Günter Berger, ''Der komisch-satirische Roman und seine Leser. Poetik, Funktion und Rezeption einer niederen Gattung im Frankreich des 17. Jahrhunderts'' (Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1984), Ellen Turner Gutiérrez ''The reception of the picaresque in the French, English, and German traditions'' (P. Lang, 1995), and Frank Palmeri, ''Satire, History, Novel: Narrative Forms, 1665-1815'' (University of Delaware Press, 2003).</ref>
 
===="Petites histoires" or "novels", 1600-1740====
[[File:1613 cervantes novelas exemplares.png|thumb|[[Miguel de Cervantes]], ''[[Novelas ejemplares|Novelas Exemplares]]'' (1613)]]
[[Image:Congreve Incognita (1692).png|thumb|[[William Congreve (playwright)|William Congreve]], ''Incognita'' (1692)]]
The term ''novel'' &ndash; today in a twisted history (see ''[[#From dubious history to "literature": The 18th-century market reform|below]]'') connected with the appearance of [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' (1719) &ndash; has been present on the market since the 16th century. [[William Painter]]'s ''Palace of Pleasure well furnished with pleasaunt Histories and excellent Novelles'' (1566) was the first English title to use it. Compared with "romances", "novelles", "novellas" or "novels" (all these words meant the same, "novel" became the standard term in the 1650s) had to be short. They had to give up all aspirations on grandeur, heroism and the style romantic heroes and their actions required. "Romances" focused on lonely heroes and their adventures, "novels" on revealing incidents that could serve as examples for moral maxims. The titles of "romances" put their respective heroes' and heroines' names front and centre: "Artamene", "Clelie" were the heroes of "heroic romances". "Satirical romances" did the same with their lower class protagonists. The additional "Adventures of" would later emphasize the focus on acts of heroism. The titles of "novels" preferred a two part formula "[...] or [...]" in order to state the value of the incident related. [[William Congreve]]'s ''Incognita or Love and Duty Reconcil'd'' (1692) was typical in this respect. The protagonists of "novels" were actors in a plot, in an intrigue, and it was the plot that gave the example and taught the vital lessons. These protagonists could be average human beings without any special signs of grandeur, neither comical nor imitable but of the same nature as their readers; they would by and large show problematic character traits.<ref>See Camille Esmein, "Construction et démolition du 'héros de roman' au XVIIe siècle", ''La fabrique du personnage'' ed. by Françoise Lavocat, Claude Murcia, Régis Salado (Paris: Honoré Champion éditeur, 2007).</ref> Unlike romances, the protagonists were not role models: instead, the surprising results of their actions taught the lessons.
 
The rise of the "novel" as the major alternative to the antiquated "romance" began with the publication of [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]] ''[[Novelas ejemplares|Novelas Exemplares]]'' (1613). It unfolded with [[Paul Scarron|Scarron]]'s ''Roman Comique'', whose heroes noted a rivalry of French "romances" and the new Spanish genre. France had to find, Scarron wrote at the time, its own brand of short stories.<ref>See Paul Scarron, ''The Comical Romance'', Chapter XXI. "Which perhaps will not be found very Entertaining" (London, 1700) with its call for the new genre. [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/library/e-1700-0002.html#c21 online edition]</ref>
 
Late 17th-century critics looked back onto the history of prose fiction proud of the generic shift towards the modern novel/novella.<ref>See [Du Sieur,] "Sentimens sur l'histoire" in: ''Sentimens sur les lettres et sur l'histoire, avec des scruples sur le stile'' (Paris: C. Blageart, 1680) [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1683-1712-novels.html online edition] and Camille Esmein's ''Poétiques du roman. Scudéry, Huet, Du Plaisir et autres textes théoriques et critiques du XVIIe siècle sur le genre romanesque'' (Paris, 2004).</ref> A wave of "petites histoires" or "nouvelles historiques"<ref>See: René Godenne, "L'association 'nouvelle – petit roman' entre 1650 et 1750", ''CAIEF'', n°18, 1966, p.67-78, Roger Guichemerre, "La crise du roman et l'épanouissement de la nouvelle (1660-1690)", ''Cahiers de l'U.E.R. Froissart'', n°3, 1978, p.101-106, Ellen J. Hunter-Chapco, ''Theory and practice of the "petit roman" in France (1656-1683): Segrais, Du Plaisir, Madame de Lafayette'' (University of Regina, 1978), and the two volumes of ''La Nouvelle de langue française aux frontières des autres genres, du Moyen-Âge à nos jours'', vol. 1 (Ottignies: 1997), vol. 2 (Louvain, 2001).</ref> had replaced the old romances. The first perfect works in French were those of Scarron and [[Madame de La Fayette]]'s "Spanish history" ''Zayde'' (1670). The development finally led to her ''[[La Princesse de Clèves|Princesse de Clèves]]'' (1678), the first novel with what would become characteristic French subject matter (Marie de LaFayette's authorship remained a secret, though, over the next decades).
The whole question of novels and romances became critical when [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]] added his ''Novelas Exemplares'' (1613) to the two volumes of his ''[[Don Quixote]]'' (1605/15). The famous satirical romance was levelled against the ''Amadis'' which had made Don Quixote lose his mind. Advocates of the lofty romance, however, would claim that the satirical counterpart of the old heroic romance could hardly teach anything: ''Don Quixote'' neither offered a hero to be emulated nor did it satisfy with beautiful speeches; all it could do was to make fun of lofty ideals. The ''Novelas Exemplares'' offered an alternative to the heroic and the satiric modes, yet critics were even less sure what to make of this production. Cervantes told stories of adultery, jealousy and crime. If these stories were to give examples, they gave examples of immoral actions. The advocates of the "novel" responded that their stories taught with both good and bad examples. The reader could still feel compassion and sympathy with the victims of crimes and intrigues, if evil examples were to be told.
 
Europe witnessed the generic shift with the titles Dutch francophone publishers supplied on the international market. English publishers exploited the novel/romance controversy in the 1670s and 1680s.<ref>See Robert Ignatius Letellier, ''The English novel, 1660-1700: an annotated bibliography'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997).</ref> The word "novel" began to replace the word "romance" on title pages in the 1680s. Contemporary critics listed the advantages of the new genre: brevity, a lack of ambition to produce epic poetry in prose. The style was fresh and plain; the focus was on modern life and on heroes who were neither good nor bad. One learned through their actions, not by imitating them.<ref>See the preface to ''The Secret History of Queen Zarah'' (Albigion, 1705)– the English version of Abbe Bellegarde, "Lettre à une Dame de la Cour, qui lui avoit demandé quelques Reflexions sur l'Histoire" in: ''Lettres curieuses de littérature et de morale'' (La Haye: Adrian Moetjens, 1702) [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1683-1712-novels.html online edition]</ref> The novel's potential to become the medium of urban gossip and scandal fuelled the rise of the novel/novella. The authors of modern journalistic gossip spiced their works with short anonymous histories. The stories were offered as allegedly true recent histories, not for the sake of scandal but strictly for the moral lessons they gave. To prove this, one would read fictionalized names (and read the true names in separate keys). The ''[[Mercure Gallant]]'' set the fashion in the 1670s.<ref>DeJean, Joan. ''The Essence of Style: How the French Invented Fashion, Fine Food, Chic Cafés, Style, Sophistication, and Glamour'' (New York: Free Press, 2005).</ref> Collections of letters and memoirs appeared, and were filled with the intriguing new subject matter. The [[epistolary novel]] grew on this market and found its first full blown example of scandalous fiction with [[Aphra Behn]]'s ''[[Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister]]'' (1684/ 1685/ 1687).
The alternative to dubious novels and satirical romances were better, lofty romances: a production of romances modeled after Heliodorus arrived as a possible answer with excursions into the [[bucolic]] world. [[Honoré d'Urfé]]'s ''L'Astrée'' (1607-27) became the most famous work of this type. The criticism that these romances had nothing to do with real life was answered through the device of the ''[[roman à clef]]'' (literally "novel with a key") — one that, properly understood, alludes to characters in the real world. [[John Barclay]]'s ''[[Argenis]]'' (1625-26) appeared as a political ''Roman à clef''. The romances of [[Madeleine de Scudéry]] gained greater influence with plots set in the ancient world and content taken from life. The famous author told stories of her friends in the literary circles of Paris and developed their fates from volume to volume of her serialized production. Readers of taste bought her books, as they offered the finest observation of human motives, characters taken from life, and excellent morals regarding how one should and should not behave if one wanted to succeed in public life and in the intimate circles she portrayed.
 
The development did not lead to ''Robinson Crusoe'' &ndash; a work that was almost provocatively (both in 1719 when it appeared and still in the 1760s) a new "romance", thanks to its exotic setting and thanks to its singular hero offering a story of survival in isolation. Crusoe lacked almost all the amenities of the new "novels": wit, a fast narration evolving around a group of young fashionable urban heroes and their intrigues, a scandalous moral, gallant talk to be imitated and brevity and conciseness of the plot. The development did, however, lead to [[Eliza Haywood]]'s epic length "novel" ''Love in Excess'' (1719/20) and to [[Samuel Richardson]]'s ''[[Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded]]'' (1741), essentially still a novel with its typical two part title: naming the story and promising its value as an example. It led to a production of classics of the intriguing production and to a reform movement in the 1740s.
The novel went its own way: [[Paul Scarron]] (himself a hero in the romances of [[Madeleine de Scudéry]]) published the first volume of his ''Roman Comique'' in 1651 (successive volumes appeared in 1657 and, by another hand, in 1663) with a plea for the development Cervantes had introduced in Spain. France should (as he wrote in the famous twenty first chapter of the ''Roman Comique'' [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/library/e-1700-0002.html#c21]) imitate the Spanish with little stories like those they called "novels". Scarron himself added numerous of such stories to his own work.
 
====Dubious and scandalous histories, 1660-1720====
Twenty years later [[Marie-Madeleine Pioche de la Vergne, comtesse de la Fayette|Madame de La Fayette]] took the next decisive steps with her two novels. The first, her ''Zayde'' (published in 1670 together with [[Pierre Daniel Huet]]'s famous ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans|Treatise on the Origin of Romances]]''), was a "Spanish history". Her second and more important novel appeared in 1678: ''[[La Princesse de Clèves]]'' proved that France could actually produce novels of a particularly French taste. The Spanish enjoyed stories of proud Spaniards who fought duels to avenge their reputations. The French had a more refined taste with minute observation of human motives and behavior. The story was firmly a "novel" and not a "romance": a story of unparalleled female virtue, with a heroine who had had the chance to risk an illicit amour and not only withstood the temptation but made herself more unhappy by confessing her feelings to her husband. The gloom her story created was entirely new and sensational.
[[File:1719-heathcot-robinson-crusoe.jpg|thumb|1719 newspaper reprint of ''Robinson Crusoe'']]
The entire market of early modern fiction remained part of the wider production of (potentially dubious) histories. A market of "literature" in the modern sense of the word, a market of fiction and poetry, did not exist. "History and politicks" was the rubric early 18th-century [[term catalogue]]s had in stock for the entire production of [[pamphlet]]s, [[memoir]]s, [[travel literature]], political analysis, serious histories, romances and novels.
 
That fictional histories could share the same space with academic histories and modern journalism had been criticized by historians since the end of the Middle Ages: fictions were "lies" and therefore hardly justifiable at all. The climate had, however, changed, in the 1670s. Paradoxically, the same historians who pleaded for a new era of academic research also pleaded for fiction to stay within the field of histories. The authors who advocated [[Pyrrhonism]], scepticism as a historical discipline, did not demand that fictions change. Instead, they demanded that historians should step from the old project of historical narratives to a new project of critical analysis and discussion of sources.<ref>See: Markus Völkel's study of the entire debate ''"Pyrrhonismus historicus' und "Fides historica"'' (Frankfurt: Lang, 1987).</ref> [[Pierre Bayle]] exemplified this with all the articles of his ''[[Dictionnaire Historique et Critique]]'' (1697) and with his statements on the legitimacy of fictions, especially those of the modern political market.<ref>See Martin Mulsow, "Pierre Bayles Beziehungen nach Deutschland. Mit einem Anhang: ein unveröffentlichtes Gespräch von Bayle", Aufklärung 16 (2004), 233-242. [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1703-rotterdam.html online edition of Stolle's notes]</ref>
The regular novel took another turn. The late seventeenth century saw the emergence of a European market for scandal, with French books now appearing mostly in the Netherlands (where censorship was liberal) to be clandestinely imported back into France. The same production reached the neighboring markets of Germany and Britain, where it was welcomed both for its French style and its predominantly anti-French politics. The novel flourished in this market as the best genre to purport scandalous news. The authors claimed the stories they had to tell were true, told not for the sake of scandal but only for the moral lessons they gave. To prove this, they fictionalized the names of their characters and told these stories as if they were novels. (The audience played its own game in identifying who was who). [[Journal]]s of little stories appeared — the ''[[Mercure Gallant]]'' became the most important. Collections of letters added to the market; these included more of these little stories and led to the development of the [[epistolary novel]] in the late seventeenth century.
 
The new novels, romances and dubious histories, the quasi historical and yet immensely readable works of the [[Madame d'Aulnoy]], [[César Vichard de Saint-Réal]],<ref>See his ''Dom Carlos, nouvelle histoire'' (Amsterdam, 1672) and the recent dissertation by Chantal Carasco, ''Saint-Réal, romancier de l'histoire: une cohérence esthéthique et morale'' (Nantes, 2005).</ref> [[Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras]],<ref>Jean Lombard, ''Courtilz de Sandras et la crise du roman à la fin du Grand Siècle'' (Paris: PUF, 1980).</ref> and [[Anne-Marguerite Petit DuNoyer]], were, according to the modern advocates of the free press, not only embedded in the field of veritable critical histories: they had an important function to fulfill in that field. In a time when factuality was not a sufficient defence against a libel suit, the romantic lay out allowed the publication of histories that could not risk an unambiguous assertion of their truth. The question was not whether one should separate the markets of true and fictional histories from each other but whether one would be able to establish critical discourses to evaluate all the interesting production.
The novel had interested the English audience ever since Chaucer's days, it had been read in translations of Spanish and French novels throughout the 17th century. In the late 1680s English authors decided to create a modern English equivalent. [[Aphra Behn]] and [[William Congreve (playwright)|William Congreve]] adopted the old term and wrote new "novels".
 
The market of the late 17th and early 18th centuries employed a simple pattern of options of how fictions could both be part of the historical production and reach out into the sphere of true histories. The fringes of this pattern flourished as cheap excuses. They allowed it authors to claim they had published fiction, not truth, if they ever faced outright allegations of libel:
===Market around 1700===
Early eighteenth century novels and romances were still not considered part of the world of learning, hence not part of "[[literature]]"; instead they were market goods. If one opened the [[term catalogue]]s it was mostly situated in the predominantly political field of "History and Politicks" with some romances like Cervantes' ''Don Quixote'' translated into verse becoming poetical. The integration of prose fiction into the market of histories appeared under the following scheme:
 
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<td widthcolspan="18%2" valignstyle="vertical-align:top"; text-align=":left;"><small>'''Probably not that fictitious'''</small></td>
<td style="width:28%; background:#e1e1e1; vertical-align:top; text-align:left;">3.1<br />Heroical Romances:<br />Fénelon's ''Telemach'' (1699)</td>
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<td colspan="2" style="vertical-align:top; text-align:right;"><small>'''Probably not that factual'''</small></td>
<td width="28%" bgcolor="#E1E1E1" valign="top" align="left">3.1<br>Heroical Romances:<br>Fénelon's ''Telemach'' (1699)</td>
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<td bgcolorstyle="width:18%; background:#F3F3F3"f3f3f3; valign="vertical-align:top"; width:18%; text-align=":left;">1<br />Sold as romantic inventions, read as true histories of public affairs:</br /><br />
Manley's ''The New Atalantis'' (1709)''</td>
<td bgcolorstyle="width:18%; background:#E8E8E8"e8e8e8; valign="vertical-align:top"; text-align=":left;">2<br />Sold as romantic inventions, read as true histories of private affairs:<br><br>
Menantes' ''Satyrischer Roman'' (1706)</td>
<td bgcolorstyle="background:#E1E1E1"e1e1e1; valign="vertical-align:center"; text-align=":left;">3.2<br />Classics of the novel from the ''Arabian Nights'' to M. de La Fayette's ''Princesse de Clèves'' (1678)</td>
<td bgcolorstyle="width:18%; background:#E8E8E8"e8e8e8; valign="vertical-align:top"; text-align=":left;">4<br />Sold as true private history, risking to be read as romantic invention:<br><br>
Defoe's ''Robinson Crusoe'' (1719)</td>
<td bgcolorstyle="width:18%; background:#F3F3F3"f3f3f3; valign="vertical-align:top"; text-align=":left;">5<br /> Sold as true public history, risking to be read as romantic invention:<br><br>
''La Guerre d'Espagne'' (1707)
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<td bgcolorstyle="background:#E1E1E1"e1e1e1; valign="vertical-align:top"; text-align=":left;">3.3<br />Satirical Romances:<br />Cervantes' ''Don Quixote'' (1605)</td>
<td colspan="2" valignstyle="vertical-align:bottom"; text-align="right:left;"><smallref>from Olaf Simons,: ''Marteaus Europa oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde''</br> (Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001), p.194.</smallref></td>
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[[Image:Fenelon Telemachus-1715 DeFoe Crusoe 1719.jpg|thumb|400px|Romances of adventures: the title pages of both the English edition of [[François Fénelon]]'s ''Telemachus'' (London: [[Edmund Curll|E. Curll]], 1715) and Defoe's ''Robinson Crusoe'' (London: [[William Taylor (publisher)|W. Taylor]], 1719).]]
Prefaces and title pages of 17th- and early 18th-century fiction acknowledged this pattern: histories could claim to be romances, but threaten to relate true events, as in the [[roman à clef]]. Other works could, conversely, claim to be factual histories, yet earn the suspicion that they were wholly invented. A further differentiation was made between private and public history: [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' was, within this pattern, neither "romance" nor "novel". It smelled &ndash; with its title page alluding to Fénelon's ''Telemachus'' (1699/1700) &ndash; of romance, whilst the preface stated that one (most certainly) read a true private history:
 
<blockquote>
The centre of the market was held by fictions which claimed to be fictions and which were read as such. They comprised a high production of romances and, at the bottom end, an opposing production of satirical romances. In the centre, the novel had grown, with stories that were neither heroic nor predominantly satirical, yet mostly realistic, short and stimulating with their examples of human actions to be discussed.
IF ''ever the Story of any private Man's Adventures in the World were worth making Pvblick, and were acceptable when Publish'd, the Editor of this Account thinks this will be so.''<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
''The Wonders of this Man's Life exceed all that (he thinks) is to be found extant; the Life of one Man being scarce capable of a greater Variety.<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
''The Story is told with Modesty, with Seriousness, and with a religious Application of Events to the Uses to which wise Men always ap[p]ly them'' (viz.) ''to the Instruction of others by this Example, and to justify and honor the Wisdom of Providence in all the Variety of our Circumstances, let them happen how they will.''<br />&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
''The Editor<ref>That would be William Taylor, the publisher unless otherwise stated.</ref> believes the thing to be a just History of Fact; neither is there any Appearance of Fiction in it: And however thinks, because all such things are dispatch'd,<ref>Changed to "disputed" in the third edition</ref> that the Improvement of it, as well as the Diversion, as to the Instruction of the Reader, will be the same;<ref>Though Taylor has stated that he supposes the account to be "just history of fact" this is a direct rendering of what Horace has said about the aims of poetic fictions: "aut prodesse volunt aut delectare poetae", "to instruct and to delight, that is what poets are aiming at", ''Ars Poetica'' verse 333.</ref> and as such he thinks, without farther Compliment to the World, he does them a great Service in the Publication.''<ref>Daniel Defoe, ''Robinson Crusoe'' (London: W. Taylor, 1719) [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1719-robinson-crusoe/p-iii.html online edition].</ref></blockquote>
 
Defoe's ''Robinson Crusoe'' did not use the twilight to spread political insinuations; the hardly credible account did, however, offer the alternative of a deeper allegorical reading. Other authors proved the practical value of the pattern. [[Delarivier Manley]]–under interrogation after the publication of her scandalous ''[[The New Atalantis|Atalantis]]'' (1709)–replied that she had written a work of sheer romance, a fairy tale located on the famous fictional island. If the ruling [[Whig (British political faction)|Whigs]] wanted to prove that all her stories matched a scandalous truth of their own actions, they might venture a libel case. The authoress was released and continued her insinuations with three more volumes of proclaimed romance published during the next two years.<ref>See Delarivier Manley's account of the affair in her ''Adventures of Rivella'' (London: E. Curl, 1714), p.114. [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1714-rivella.html online edition]</ref>
 
Whilst journalists continued to defend the dubious production (relying on the enlightened audience's ability to read with the necessary grain of skepticism if not with amusement), the defenders of public morals demanded an entirely new organization of the market, one that isolated fiction. This was the market the 18th century was to establish.{{-}}
 
===From dubious history to literature: The 18th-century market reform===
{| style="float:right;"
|[[File:ESTC-Title-count-1600-1800.png|thumb|300px|Total numbers of English titles, 1600-1799 according to [[English Short Title Catalogue|ESTC]] data. Years of political turmoil produced higher numbers of controversial short tracts.<ref>Press output statistics would be needed to see how important the political production actually was for the publishers. One would produce them with an estimate of the numbers of sheets printed. A viable solution would be (for the period 1600-1800) to assume standard editions of about 800 copies; the number of sheets a title needed per copy could be deduced from format and page numbers. It is not clear whether it would be technically possible to use the ESTC data to create such a statistic.</ref>]]<br />
[[File:1600-1799-estc-fiction.png|thumb|300px|The entire yearly output of fiction in English rose in the 18th century.<ref>Numbers follow the [[English Short Title Catalogue|ESTC]] classification of "fiction" and have to be seen as arbitrary identifications of "fictions". Searching for dubious histories and works written in what is today perceived as the literary style of novels one is likely to arrive at higher numbers.</ref>]]
|}
 
====The Rise of the Novel====
The 18th-century rise of the novel<ref>[[Ian Watt]]'s, ''The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding'' (London, 1957) set the phrase and inspired a number of ensuing publications. Major titles are here John J. Richetti, ''Popular Fiction before Richardson. Narrative Patterns 1700-1739'' (1969), Lennard J. Davis, ''Factual Fictions: The Origins of the English Novel'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), J. Paul Hunter, ''Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction'' (New York: Norton, 1990), Margaret Anne Doody, ''The True Story of the Novel'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: [[Rutgers University Press]], 1996), and the volumes ''Eighteenth Century Fiction'' brought out under the title "Reconsidering The Rise of the Novel" (the first of them appeared in January-April 2000, the second is supposed appear in 2009). Research in [[Aphra Behn]], [[Delarivier Manley]] and [[Eliza Haywood]] has changed the picture since the 1970s with a focus on the two generations of female authors who dominated the stage into the 1720s. Major studies and text editions have been provided here by Patricia Köster, Ros Ballaster, Janet Todd and Patrick Spedding. A compound story is here Josephine Donovan, ''Women and the Rise of the Novel, 1405-1726'' revised edition (Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).</ref> is a compound of several stories.
 
One is a story of statistics. English readers of the late 17th and early 18th centuries were offered a total of some 2,000 to 3,000 titles per year. The numbers had risen dramatically after the abolition of the [[Star Chamber]] in 1641. The simple title count gives, however, a distorted picture as it places theological and political pamphlets of short term effect on the same level with editions of books printed to sell over several years. Statistics of the French and German markets have their own distortions: French numbers are comparatively higher due to the fact that Dutch publishers (re-)printed French books for the international market. French was Europe's lingua franca and the language of international politics and fashions. Germany's book trade was large but divided between Protestant and Catholic states. The former had arranged for a wider exchange at Leipzig's fairs. The academic production in Latin was comparatively large on the continent due to the importance continental universities had gained as providers of careers.
 
Literature in the modern sense was of marginal importance all over Europe until the end of the 18th century. In the Western markets some two to five percent of the total production fell into the categories of poetry and dubious or elegant historical works that were later united under the new heading literature. To give the numbers for the English production: The fictional output remained here at 20 to 60 titles per year in the beginning of the 18th century depending on how one accounts for the wider market of histories. French, German and Dutch statistics are comparable.<ref>See the statistics Inger Leemans offers for the Dutch and French production, ''Het woord is aan de onderkant: radicale ideeën in Nederlandse pornografische romans 1670 - 1700'' (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002), S.359-364. See also for an overview of the German and English early 18th-century production: [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/resources/novels/index.html]</ref> The eastern and southern European neighbors largely subscribed to the international market.
 
The Western European output of literature in the modern sense rose significantly in the course of the 18th century; the growth rates stabilised in the 1740s. A change in the public appreciation supported that growth and was reflected by the growing media coverage of new works.
 
=====Cultural status and place=====
Fiction was no longer a predominantly aristocratic entertainment around 1700. The [[Provençal (dialect)|Provençal]] 12th-century romances and their imitations had already attracted urban connoisseurs who had had the financial means to commission bigger manuscripts in the 14th and 15th centuries. Printed books had soon gained the power to reach readers of almost all classes, the reading habits differed. To follow fashions remained a privilege. Spain was a trendsetter into the 1630s; French authors superseded [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]], [[Francisco de Quevedo|de Quevedo]], and [[Mateo Alemán|Alemán]] in the 1640s. As [[Pierre Daniel Huet|Huet]] was to note in 1670, the change was one of manners.<ref>"We owe (I believe) this Advantage to the Refinement and Politeness of our Gallantry; which proceeds, in my Opinion, from the great Liberty which the Men of France allow to the Ladies. They are in a manner Recluses in Italy and Spain; and separated from Men by so many Obstacles, that they are scarce to be seen, and not to be spoken with at all. Hence the Men have neglected the Art of Engaging the Tender Sex, because the Occasions of it are so rare. All the Study and Business there, is to surmount the Difficulties of Access; when this is effected, they make Use of the Time, without amusing themselves with Forms. But in France, the Ladies go at large upon their Parole; and being under no Custody but that of their own Heart, erect it into a Fort, more strong and secure than all the Keys, Grates, and Vigilance of the Douegnas. The Men are obliged to make a Regular and Formal Assault against this Fort, to employ so much Industry and Address to reduce it, that they have formed it into an Art scarce known to other Nations. 'Tis this Art which distinguishes the French from other Romances, and renders the Reading of them so Delicious, that they cause more Profitable Studies to be neglected." Pierre Daniel Huet, ''The History of Romances'', transl. by Stephen Lewis (London: J. Hooke/ T. Caldecott, 1715), p.138-140.</ref> The new French works taught a new, on the surface freer, gallant exchange between the sexes as the essence of life at the French court. Aristocratic and bourgeois customers sought distinctly French authors to offer the authentic style of conversations in the 1660s.
 
The situation changed again from 1660s into the 1690s: the French market split. Dutch publishers<ref>See for the following: Christiane Berkvens-Stevelinck, H. Bots, P. G. Hoftijzer (eds.), ''Le Magasin de L'univers: The Dutch Republic as the Centre of the European Book Trade: Papers Presented at the International Colloquium, Held at Wassenaar, 5-7 July 1990'' (Leiden/ Boston, MA: Brill, 1992).</ref> began to sell works by French authors, published out of the reach of French censors. The publishing houses of The Hague and Amsterdam also pirated the entire Parisian production of fashionable books and thus created a new market of political and scandalous fictions and European fashions. Composers [[Arcangelo Corelli|Corelli]] and [[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]] sent their sheet music from Italy to [[Étienne Roger]] in Amsterdam in order to reach a wider European audience. The same Roger published [[René Auguste Constantin de Renneville|Renneville's]] ''L'inquisition Françoise '' (1715). In the year of its publication, the latter work was available both in an English version published in London and a German version published in Nuremberg. Books of the period boasted of their fame on the international market and of the existence of intermediate translations. "Written originally in Italian and translated from the third edition of the French" one read in imitation of this craze on title page of Manley's ''New Atalantis'' in 1709. A market of European rather than French fashions had arrived in the early 18th century.<ref>See also the article on [[Pierre Marteau]] for a profile of the European production of (not only) political scandal.</ref>
 
[[File:1711 The Court and City Vagaries.jpg|thumb|left|Intimate short stories: ''The Court and City Vagaries'' (1711).]]
By the 1680s the fashionable political European production had inspired a second wave of private scandalous publications and generated new productions of local importance. Women authors reported on politics and on their private love affairs in The Hague and in London. German students imitated them and used the relative anonymity they enjoyed in far smaller towns like Jena, Halle and Leipzig, to boast of their private amours in fiction.<ref>See ''George Ernst Reinwalds Academien- und Studenten-Spiegel'' (Berlin: J. A. Rüdiger, 1720), p.424-427 and the novels written by such "authors" as Celander, Sarcander, and Adamantes at the beginning of the 18th century.</ref> The market of the metropolis London, the anonymous international market of the Netherlands, the urban markets of Hamburg and Leipzig generated new public spheres.<ref>The standard study, though problematic with its theory of historical delays, is here Jürgen Habermas, ''The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry Into a Category of Bourgeois Society'' [1962], translated by Thomas Burger (MIT Press, 1991).</ref> Once private individuals &ndash; students of university towns and daughters of London's upper class posing on the title pages anonymously under announcements like "Written by a Young Lady" &ndash; began to use the novel as platform on which they could openly reevaluate their questionable reputations, the public began to call for a reformation of manners.<ref>The ''Entertainments of Gallantry: or Remedies for Love. Familiarly discours'd, by a society of persons of quality'' (London: J. Morphew, 1712) celebrate how easy it has become for private individuals to write little novels &ndash; the entire book wants to prove this in the End. For criticism of the new production see the ''Entertainments'' p.74-77, Jane Barker's preface to her ''Exilius'' (London: E. Curll, 1715), [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1715-exilius.html online edition], and ''George Ernst Reinwalds Academien- und Studenten-Spiegel'' (Berlin: J. A. Rüdiger, 1720), p.424-427.</ref>
 
The reform became the main goal of the second generation of 18th-century novelists who, by the mid-century, openly welcomed the change of climate that had first been promoted in journals such as ''[[The Spectator (1711)|The Spectator]]'' (No. 10 of ''The Spectator'' had stated the aim "to enliven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality… to bring philosophy out of the closets and libraries, schools and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffeehouses"). Constructive criticism of novels had until then hardly left the world of fiction.<ref>See for a European perspective: Hugh Barr Nisbet, Claude Rawson (eds.), ''The Cambridge history of literary criticism'', vol. IV (Cambridge University Press 1997); for greater detail Ernst Weber, ''Texte zur Romantheorie: (1626-1781)'', 2 vols. (München: Fink, 1974/ 1981) and the individual volumes of Dennis Poupard (et al.), ''Literature Criticism from 1400 to 1800: Critical Discussion of the Works of Fifteenth-, Sixteenth-, Seventeenth-, and Eighteenth-Century Novelists, Poets, Playwrights, Philosophers, and Other Creative Writers'' (Detroit, Mich.: Gale Research Co, 1984 ff.).</ref> The first treatise on the history of the novel had appeared as a preface to a novel, Marie de La Fayette's ''Zayde'' (1670). "Literary journals" devoted to the sciences could not easily switch to devote themselves to belles lettres.<ref>See: Siegfried Seifert, "The learned periodical as the medium of current literary criticism and information in 18th-century Germany", ''Transactions of the 7th International Congress on the Enlightenment'', 2 (1988), p.661-63.</ref> A distinct secondary discourse developed with a wave of entertaining new journals like ''The Spectator'' and ''[[Tatler|The Tatler]]'' at the beginning of the century. New "literary journals" like [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]'s ''Briefe, die neuste Literatur betreffend'' (1758) added to this production in the middle of the century with the offer of new, scientific reviews of art and fiction. By the 1780s, critical public reception constituted a new marketing platform for fiction, and authors and publishers recognized it as such. One could write to satisfy the old market or one could address the authors of secondary criticism and gain an audience through their discussions. It would take yet another generation for the novel to arrive in the curricula of school and university education. By the end of the 18th century, the public perception of the place of a particular novel was no longer supplied simply by social status and fashionable geographical provenance, but by critical media attention.
 
=====Realism and art=====
[[File:1715 Constantin de Renneville imprisoned.jpg|thumb|"Better than any romance" &ndash; [[René Auguste Constantin de Renneville|Constantin de Renneville's]] ''French Inquisition'' (1715), the author's arrest.]]
The term "[[literary realism]]" is regularly applied to 19th-century fiction. The novels Defoe, Richardson and Fielding wrote between 1719 and the 1750s can be read as precursors. Research of the last decades has, however, contested views that it was ''Robinson Crusoe's'' realism that ended the sway of "French baroque romances".<ref>Ian Watt's ''The Rise of the Novel'' (London, 1957) established the standard connections between Defoe, Richardson and Fielding and the 19th-century emergence of literary realism. J. Davis's, ''Factual Fictions: The Origins of the English Novel'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983) and J. Paul Hunter's ''Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction'' (New York: Norton, 1990) substantiated the connection. Feminist research on Defoe's precursors, research on female authors from [[Aphra Behn]] and [[Delarivier Manley]] revised the picture and coincided with research in the market of French late 17th century (fictional) memoirs and histories. See e.g. Gustave Reynier, ''Le Roman réaliste au XVIIe siècle'' [1914] (Genève: Slatkine Reprints, 1971), Roger Francillon, "Fiction et réalité dans le roman français de la fin du XVIIe siècle", ''Saggi e ricerche di letteratura francese'', vol. XVII, (1978), p.99-130, and Günter Berger, "Histoire et fiction dans les pseudo-mémoires de l'âge classique: dilemme du roman ou dilemme de l'historiographie?", ''Perspectives de la recherche sur le genre narratif français du XVIIe siècle'', actes du colloque de Pavie (octobre 1998), Pise-Genève, Edizioni Ets–Éditions Slatkine n° 8 (2000). p.213-226.</ref>
 
Madeleine de Scudéry's "romances" had not been completely unrealistic; [[Roman à clef|Keys]] had circulated with them.<ref>See on connections between the heroical romance and French historical fiction: Camille Esmein, "Le roman héroïque (1640-1680), première théorisation d'un roman historique" in ''Fiction narrative et hybridation générique dans la littérature française'' ed. by Hélène Baby (L'Harmattan, 2006).</ref> They had left the market nonetheless in the 1670s, defeated by the more realistic "novels" that appeared then. The ensuing production had broadly encroached upon the news market: [[Delarivier Manley]]'s ''[[The New Atalantis|Atalantis]]'' was reviewed by a German academic journal in 1713 as work of contemporary public history.<ref>See the serious political review of Manley's ''New Atalantis'' the ''Deutsche Acta Eruditorum'' (1713), vol. 9, p.771-779, and vol. 14, p.112-115. [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1712-atalantis.html online edition]</ref> [[Christian Friedrich Hunold]] fled Hamburg in 1706 after his ''Satyrischer Roman'' had depicted the city's elegant urban life as a place of scandal.<ref>See Benjamin Wedel, ''Geheime Nachrichten und Briefe von Herrn Menantes Leben und Schriften'' (Cologne: Oelscher, 1731, reprint: Zentralantiquariat der DDR, Leipzig 1977).</ref> The French pseudo histories connected today with names such as Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras (1644-1712) had become even more radical in their realism: they had depicted the real world with a detail historians remain unable to deactivate as "merely fiction".
 
It has been noted that Defoe's ''Robinson Crusoe'' followed [[Alexander Selkirk]]'s "true" account.<ref>Compare John Howell, ''The life and adventures of Alexander Selkirk: Containing the Real Incidents Upon which the Romance of Robinson Crusoe is Founded'' (Oliver & Boyd, 1829) and Diana Souhami, ''Selkirk's Island: The True and Strange Adventures of the Real Robinson Crusoe'' (Harcourt, 2002).</ref> and that Crusoe's style of writing recycled modes of the Protestant spiritual autobiography.<ref>See George Alexander Starr, ''Defoe and Spiritual Autobiography'' (Princeton: University Press, 1964).</ref> The presentation of his book had its own models, however, much rather in the contemporary French pseudo histories.<ref>See Wilhelm Füger, ''Die Entstehung des historischen Romans aus der fiktiven Biographie in Frankreich und England, unter besonderer Berücksichtigung von Courtilz de Sandras und Daniel Defoe'' (Munich, 1963).</ref> [[René Auguste Constantin de Renneville]]'s report of his imprisonment in the Bastille had appeared in English with Defoe's publisher William Taylor four years earlier. Renneville had promised: "Lives and strange Adventures of several Prisoners", Crusoe risked the focus on himself: "The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe". An imprisonment of 11 years had been Renneville's bargain, Crusoe made it 28 years. Renneville's English translator had complained of an author who was "not always in a Temper; sometimes he is all Piety and Godliness, and then again flies out into a Romantick Strain."<ref>See: ''The French Inquisition: or, The History of the Bastille in Paris'' [...] ''written by Constantin de Renneville'' (London: A. Bell/ T. Varnham/ J. Osborne/ W. Taylor/ J. Baker, 1715), fol. A2<sup>r-v</sup>.</ref> Crusoe's "editor" Taylor repeated these complaints before the sailor himself raised his voice with the greatest inconsistencies imaginable, claiming that he was both, most real and healthy (though 84 years of age) and a man of an allegorical truth with which he stood on one level with Don Quixote, a hero of a roman à clef (so Crusoe), and Jesus Christ who had resorted to allegories and parables in order to reach his audience.<ref>See Crusoe's own preface to the third volume of his work.</ref> ''Robinson Crusoe'' was serialized as possibly true history by ''The Original London Post'';<ref>Volume 1 was reprinted in ''The Original London Post, or Heathcot's Intelligence'', numbers 125-202 (London: 7 October 1719 - 30 March 1720), volume 2 followed with numbers 203-89 (London, 1 April - 18 October 1720). The advertisement for W. Taylor's edition of the second part in no. 202 implies that this was no pirated edition. It is rather likely that Taylor and Defoe allowed the serialization to the disadvantage of the rival pirate publishers.</ref> and it became the work of creative literature [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] could finally praise in his ''[[Emile: or, On Education|Émile, ou De l'éducation]]'' in 1762.<ref>See Wyatt James Dowling, ''Science, "Robinson Crusoe", and judgment: A commentary on Book III of Rousseau's "Emile"'' [Boston College Dissertation] (2007). [http://escholarship.bc.edu/dissertations/AAI3301787/ online edition].</ref>
 
One can note a balance of opposing developments here: The 18th century witnessed the rise of increasingly realistic fictions while both, authors and critics defined the entire field of fictions as distinct from the historical. The development de-scandalised the market: Valuable fictions defended a higher truth, a truth beyond the flat, factual and historical truth of every-day experience. Theories of [[aesthetics]] praised the "imitation of nature" and the artist's almost divine power to create worlds of a deeper significance in the second half of the 18th century. The previous conflict between historians and romancers was thus finally resolved: Valuable Fictions and true histories became two fields the modern nations needed. Literary journals and literary histories became the privileged media of a new analysis of literary art &ndash; the development that has been noted above as one of status and that eventually caused the 19th century conceptual change of the word literature.<ref>See the beginning of [[#The novel as national literature, 19th-century developments|the 19th-century chapter]] for a look back onto the process and for secondary literature.</ref>
 
The market divide that led to the modern trivial production in the second half of the 18th century was the by product of this process. The rise of pornography beginning in the 1750s is an early sign for that divide.
 
=====The words "novel" and "romance"=====
[[File:Romances-novels-1600-1799.png|thumb|300px|The short "novel" supplanted the longer "romance" in the 1680s. It found a second peak on title pages in 1720s when it received its body of classics. The labeling of fictions became only more interesting at the end of the century.<ref>The statistic includes a small number of plays that came out as "novels" or "romances" whilst both words also stood for genres of stories.</ref>]]
The change of words, the rise of the word "novel" at the cost of the rivaling "romance", remained a Spanish and English phenomenon. Readers all over western Europe had welcomed the novel(la) or short history as an alternative in the second half of the 17th century. Only the English and the Spanish had, however, openly discredited the old production.
 
The change of taste remained a temporal phenomenon. [[François Fénelon|Fénelon's]] ''Telemachus'' (1699/1700) already exploited a nostalgia for the old production of heroism and professed virtue. [[Jane Barker]] explicitly advertised her ''Exilius'' as "A new Romance", "written after the Manner of Telemachus" in 1715 to which she added a preface on the scandalous new production one had to get rid of.<ref>See the preface to her ''Exilius'' (London: E. Curll, 1715), [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1715-exilius.html online edition]</ref> ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' spoke of his own book as a "romance" though he preferred, of course, readers to believe he was utterly real.<ref>See the preface to his third volume published in 1720 where he attacks all who said "that[..] the Story is feign'd, that the Names are borrow'd, and that it is all a Romance; that there never were any such Man or Place..."</ref>
 
The term "novel" first peaked on the English market in the 1680s, when the novel(la) manifested itself as the alternative to the older "romance". It lost its attractiveness with ensuing scandalous production in the twilight between truth and fiction. The 1720s saw a second peak of "novels" with the first editions of classics of the genre and with new large scale "novels" in the style Eliza Haywood wrote. In the mid-18th century it was no longer clear whether the market had not simply developed two terms: "romance" as the generic term, "novel" as the term for the fashionable production that focused on modern life.
 
The late 18th-century brought an answer with the "[[romanticism|romantic]]" movement's readiness to reclaim the word "romance" as term for explicitly grotesque and distant fictional settings. ''Robinson Crusoe'' became a "novel" in that period<ref>The terminological fixation cannot be dated. John Howell used the word "romance" in 1829 in the title of his ''The life and adventures of Alexander Selkirk: Containing the Real Incidents Upon which the Romance of'' Robinson Crusoe ''is Founded'' (Oliver & Boyd, 1829). The word "novel" had by that time referred to ''Robinson Crusoe'' on the very same ground with the publication of ''Providence displayed: or, the remarkable adventures of [[Alexander Selkirk]]'' [...] ''whose adventures was founded the celebrated novel of Robinson Crusoe'' (Bristol: I. James etc., 1800).</ref> appearing now as a work of the new realism of fiction the 18th century had brought forth. The term "romance" was eventually restricted to love stories in the course of the 19th century.
 
====Legitimating the novel: World Classics, 1670-1830====
[[Image:Select Collection Novels 1722.jpg|thumb|Classics of the novel from the 16th century onwards: title page of ''A Select Collection of Novels'' (1720–22).]]
[[Pierre Daniel Huet]]'s ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans]]'' (1670) laid the ground for the early 18th-century market in classics of the novel. The theologian had not only dared to praise fictions; he had also explained techniques of theological reading, the interpretation of fictions:<ref>The interpretation of worldly fictions was a novelty. Huet had gone, however, into this direction with a longer preparation. His ''De interpretatione libri duo, quorum prior est de optimo genere interpretandi alter de claris interpretibus'' (1661) had by 1670 become one of the greatest works in the field of theological interpretation.</ref> one could read novels and romances to gain insight into foreign and distant cultures (and into one's own culture), once one viewed them as something produced to achieve aims and to satisfy consumers. [[Jesus Christ|Christ]] had used parables to teach; ancient [[Miletus|Milesians]] had used them to arouse sexual fantasies; France produced them at present to test the options of a less inhibited conversation between the sexes.<ref>See the extended excerpt of Stephen Lewis 1715 edition at ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans]]'' (1670) for the collection of these statements and further literature.</ref>
 
The decades around 1700 saw the appearance of new editions of [[Petronius]],<ref>''The Works of T. Petronius Arbiter'' [...] ''second edition'' [...] ''made English by Mr. Wilson, Mr. Burnaby, Mr. Blount, Mr. Tho. Brown, Capt Ayloff, and several others'' (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1710).</ref> [[Lucian]]<ref>''The Works of Lucian, translated from the Greek, by several eminent hands'', 2 vols. (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1711).</ref> and [[Heliodorus of Emesa]].<ref>See ''The Adventures of Theagenes and Chariclia'' [...] ''written originally in Greek by Heliodorus Bishop of Tricca, in the Fourth Century'', 2 vols. (London: W. Taylor/ E. Curll/ R. Gosling/ J. Hooke/ J. Browne/ J. Osborn, 1717).</ref> The publishers equipped them with prefaces that referred to Huet's treatise<ref>A tongue in cheek reference to Huet can be found in ''The German Rogue: or, The Life and Merry Adventures, Cheats, Stratagems, And Contrivances of Tiel Eulespiegle'' [...] ''Made English from the High-Dutch'' (London, 1720), a German chapbook offered in the new design of a classic according to Huet.</ref> and the canon it had established. Exotic fictions entered the market to give insight into the Islamic frame of mind. One read ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'' (first published in Europe from 1704 to 1715 in French, and translated immediately from this edition into English and German) as a contribution to Huet's history of romances.<ref>August Bohse's (alias Talander) preface to the German edition starting in 1710 offers the link between the ''Arabian Nights'' and Huet. See: ''Die Tausend und eine Nacht'' [...] ''erstlich vom Hrn. Galland, der Kön. Academie Mitgliede, aus der arabischen Sprache in die frantzösische, und aus selbiger anitzo ins Teutsche übersetzt: erster und anderer Theil. Mit einer Vorrede von Talandern'' (Leipzig: J. L. Gleditsch/ M. G. Weidmann, 1710).</ref>
 
New classics added to the market: The English ''Select Collection of Novels in six volumes'' (1720–22) is a milestone in this development, including Huet's ''Treatise'' with the European tradition of the modern novel (that is, novella) from [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]]'s to Marie de LaFayette's masterpieces.
 
[[Aphra Behn]]'s prose fictions had appeared as "novels" in the 1680s and were reprinted in collections of her works which turned the scandalous authoress into a modern classic. [[François Fénelon|Fénelon]]'s ''Telemachus'' (1699/1700) became a classic within three years after its publication. New authors entered the market ready to use their personal names as producers of fiction: [[Eliza Haywood]] thus followed the footsteps of Aphra Behn in 1719 using her name with unprecedented pride.
 
===="The reformation of manners", 1678–1790====
[[Image:Richardson pamela 1741.jpg|thumb|[[Samuel Richardson]]'s ''[[Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded|Pamela]]'' (1741)]]
The production of classics allowed the novel to gain a past, prestige and a canon. It called at the same moment for a present production of equal merits. A wave of mid-18th-century works that proclaimed their intent to propagate improved moral values gave critics modern novels they could discuss publicly. Instead of banning novels, the efforts at [[reformation of manners]] that had begun in the 1690s now led to their reform.
 
Female authors and heroines were the first affected by the development. [[Madame d'Aulnoy]] and [[Delarivier Manley]] became notorious examples of a bygone age of impudence. They had washed their dirty linen in public and used their novels to reinvent themselves and convert their own notoriety into fame. The new female heroines had to show intimacy and sensitivity where their early 18th century ancestors had been ready to appear in public in order to sanitize their reputations. Intimate confessions and blushes filled the new novels, feelings of guilt, even where suspicions were groundless (early 18th century heroines had defended their virtues and reputations flamboyantly even where they had gone astray). The modern heroines acted transparently, whereas their early 18th century counterparts had resorted to secret dealings in endless intrigues.<ref>See for novels teaching strategies: Vera Lee, ''Love and strategy in the eighteenth-century French novel'' (Schenkman Books, 1986), Anton Kirchhofer, '' Strategie und Wahrheit: Zum Einsatz von Wissen über Leidenschaften und Geschlecht im Roman der englischen Empfindsamkeit'' (München: Fink, 1995). [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/c/kirchhofer/strategy.html online edition] and the two first context chapters in Olaf Simons, ''Marteaus Europa, oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde'' (Amsterdam, 2001), p.200-207 and p.259-290.</ref> Madame de La Fayette's ''[[La Princesse de Clèves]]'' (1678) can be read as the first novel that showed the new behavior.
 
[[File:Werther.jpg|thumb|left|[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s [[The Sorrows of Young Werther|''Werther'']] (1774).]]
To become a fashion, if not the standard of modern behavior, the new personality features needed new [[social environment]]s. Marie de La Fayette's Princesse had fallen into a desperate situation as soon as she risked the outrageous transparency to confess her feelings for another man to her husband. Neither he nor his rival knew how to continue once all this was clear. Mid-18th-century novels created alternatives: protagonists acted transparently, their antagonists saw that as a weakness and exploited and ruined them &ndash; quite the early 18th century option &ndash; but now the moral balance shifted: the open-hearted heroines were no longer victims one could blame for a lack of virtue, but tragic (or melodramatic) figures who had defended a better world. Other novels placed the new transparent heroines into equally new caring environments. Their families resisted temptations to marry them off against their wills, and men around them resisted temptations to seduce them in moments of weakness. The message was that respect and care were to meet open-heartedness in a new age of [[sensibility]]. Other novels experimented with surprising acts of an [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightened]] [[rationalism|rationality]] with which their protagonists could escape deadlock situations far worse than the one Marie de La Fayette's Princesse had produced with her confessions.
 
The last volume of [[Antoine François Prévost]]'s ''Memoirs and Adventures of a Man of Quality'', "[[Manon Lescaut]]" (1731), aroused a scandal with its melodramatic turns and its unresolved conflicts.
 
[[Samuel Richardson]]'s ''[[Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded]]'' (1740), composed "to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes" focused, by contrast, on the potential victim, a heroine of all the modern virtues vulnerable through her social status and her occupation as servant of the libertine who falls in love with her. Eventually, she shows the power to reform her antagonist.
 
[[Christian Fürchtegott Gellert]]'s ''Life of the Swedish Countess of G**'' (1747/48) tested the options of rationality. The titular countess had to decide between two husbands after her first, believed to be dead, returned from a Siberian war captivity. Both her husbands, former friends, had to come to terms with the rational problem her situation presented (and did it in a startling mixture of piety and modern philosophy).
 
[[File:1766 John Cleland Fanny Hill v1 p50.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Beginnings of a secret market of pornography, illustration to vol. 1, p.50 of the 1766 ''[[Fanny Hill]]'' edition.]]
Male heroes adopted the new [[sentimental novel|sentimental]] character traits in the 1760s. [[Laurence Sterne]]'s [[Yorick]], the hero of the ''[[A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy|Sentimental Journey]]'' (1768) did so with an enormous amount of humour. [[Oliver Goldsmith]]'s ''[[The Vicar of Wakefield|Vicar of Wakefield]]'' (1766) and [[Henry Mackenzie]]'s ''Man of Feeling'' (1771) produced the far more serious role models.
 
The virtuous production inspired a [[Subculture|sub]]- and [[counterculture]] of [[pornography|pornographic]] novels. Greek and Latin authors in modern translations had provided elegant [[transgressive fiction|transgressions]] on the market of the belles lettres for the last century.<ref>The elegant and clearly fashionable edition of ''The Works of [[Lucian]]'' (London: S. Briscoe/ J. Woodward/ J. Morphew, 1711), would thus include the story of "Lucian's Ass", vol.1 p.114-43.</ref> Satirical novels like [[Richard Head]]'s ''English Rogue'' (1665) had led their heroes through urban brothels, women authors like [[Aphra Behn]] had offered their heroines alternative careers as precursors of the 19th-century [[femme fatale|femmes fatales]] &ndash; without creating a subculture.<ref>[[Aphra Behn]]'s ''[[Love-Letters Between a Nobleman and His Sister]]'' (1684/ 1685/ 1687) &ndash; with her heroine becoming a high-tier prostitute &ndash; had explicit sex scenes and nonetheless became a classic that male and female readers of taste could openly praise.</ref> The market for belles lettres had been openly transgressive as long as it did not find any reflections in other media. The new production beginning with works like [[John Cleland]]'s ''[[Fanny Hill]]'' (1748) differed in that it offered almost exact reversals of the plot lines the virtuous production demanded. Fanny Hill is introduced to a life of prostitution, learns to enjoy her part and establishes herself as a free and economically independent individual &ndash; in editions one could only expect to buy under the counter.<ref>See Robert Darnton, ''The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-Revolutionary France'' (New York: Norton, 1995), Lynn Hunt, ''The Invention of Pornography: Obscenity and the Origins of Modernity, 1500-1800'' (New York: Zone, 1996), Inger Leemans, ''Het woord is aan de onderkant: radicale ideeën in Nederlandse pornografische romans 1670 - 1700'' (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002), and Lisa Z. Sigel, ''Governing Pleasures: Pornography and Social Change in England, 1815-1914'' (January: Scholarly Book Services Inc, 2002).</ref>
Openly uncontrollable conflicts arrived in the 1770s with [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s ''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther]]'' (1774). The titular hero realised how impossible it had become for him to integrate into the new conformist society. [[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos]]'s ''[[Les Liaisons dangereuses]]'' (1782) shows the other extreme, with a group of aristocrats playing games of intrigue and amorality.
 
The sentimental protagonists of the 1740s had already surprised their readers and aroused a debate whether human nature was correctly depicted with these new novels. They discovered a truth of the heart one had not dared to deal with so far. The radical and lonely characters that appeared in the 1760s and 1770s broke with traditions and eventually needed entirely new back-stories to become plausible. Childhoods, and adolescences had to explain why these protagonists should have developed so differently. The concept of [[character (arts)|character development]] began to fascinate novelists in the 1760s. [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]]'s novels focused on such developments in philosophical experiments. The German [[Bildungsroman]] offered quasi-biographical explorations and autobiographical self examinations of the individual and its personal development by the 1790s. A subcategory of the genre focused on the creation of an artist (if not the artist writing the novel). It led to the 19th-century production of novels exploring how modern times form the modern individual.
 
====Fiction as a new experimental field, 1700–1800====
[[File:1769 Laurence Sterne Tristram Shandy v6 p70.jpg|thumb|[[Laurence Sterne]], ''[[Tristram Shandy]]'', vol.6, p.70-71 (1769)]]
The new 18th-century status of the novel as an object of debate is particularly manifest in special development of philosophical<ref>See for the 17th- and 18th-century philosphical novel: The chapter "The Spinozistic Novel in French", in [[Jonathan Israel|Jonathan Irvine Israel]], ''Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650-1750'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 2002), p.591-599, Roger Pearson, ''The fables of reason: a study of Voltaire's "Contes philosophiques"'' (Oxford University Press 1993), Dena Goodman, ''Criticism in action: Enlightenment experiments in political writing'' ([[Cornell University Press]] 1989), Robert Francis O'Reilly, ''The Artistry of Montesquieu's Narrative Tales'' (University of Wisconsin., 1967), and René Pomeau and Jean Ehrard, ''De Fénelon à Voltaire'' (Flammarion, 1998).</ref> and experimental novels.
 
Philosophical fiction was not exactly new. [[Plato]]'s dialogues were embedded in fictional narratives. [[Utopia]]s had added to this production with works from [[Thomas More]]'s ''[[Utopia (book)|Utopia]]'' (1516) to [[Tommaso Campanella]]'s ''[[The City of the Sun|City of the Sun]]'' (1602). Works such as these had not been read as novels or romances but as philosophical texts. The 1740s saw new editions of More's work under the title that created the tradition: ''Utopia: or the happy republic; a philosophical romance'' (1743).
 
[[Voltaire]] utilised the romance to write philosophy with his ''[[Micromégas|Micromegas: a comic romance. Being a severe satire upon the philosophy, ignorance, and self-conceit of mankind]]'' (1752, English 1753). His ''[[Zadig]]'' (1747) and ''[[Candide]]'' (1759) became central texts of the French [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and of the modern novel. [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] bridged the genres with his less fictional ''[[Emile: or, On Education]]'' (1762) and his far more romantic ''[[Julie, or the New Heloise]]'' (1761). It made sense to publish these works as romances or novels, works of fiction, only because prose fiction had become an object of public discussion. The public reception provided by the new market of journals was both freer and wider than the discussion in journals of philosophy would have been. It had become attractive to step into the realm of fiction in order to provide matter for the ongoing debates.
 
The genre's new understanding of itself resulted in the first [[metafiction]]al experiment, pressing against its limitations. [[Laurence Sterne]]'s ''[[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman]]'' (1759-1767) rejected continuous narration. It expanded the author-reader communication from the preface into the plot itself &ndash; ''Tristram Shandy'' develops as a conversation between the narrative voice and his audience. Besides narrative experiments, there were visual experiments: a marbled page, a black page to express particular sorrow, a page of little lines to visualize the plot lines of the book one was reading. [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[A Tale of a Tub]]'' (1704) is an early precursor in this field &ndash; a work that employs visual elements with similar ambition &ndash; yet hardly a text in the tradition of the original novel or its rival the romance.
 
===The novel as national literature, 19th-century developments===
[[File:Gill-Dickens.jpg|thumb|[[Charles Dickens]] on the cover of ''L'Eclipse'' June 14, 1868 on his way across the English Channel]]
By the beginning of the 19th century, prose fiction had moved from a field of questionable entertainment and precarious historicity into the centre of the new literary debate. A new arrangement of the sciences taught at modern universities would finally protect the development. Theology, law, medicine, and philosophy had been the four traditional faculties. National literature became the object of a new university system in which the [[natural sciences]] acted as [[exact science]]s, the [[social sciences]] with an outlook on the modern societies, and the [[humanities]] with a responsibility for history and culture. Literature in a definition that turned fiction into a central literary production would be a subject of the philologies in the latter segment of research.
 
The traditional task of literary historians, to [[review]] the sciences, was referred to the individual sciences and their respective [[academic journal]]s. The general debate of literature was turned into an exploration of poetry and fiction.<ref>In-depth studies are here Jürgen Fohrmann's ''Das Projekt der deutschen Literaturgeschichte'' (Stuttgart, 1989), giving the structure of the following: Olaf Simons, ''Marteaus Europa, oder Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde'' (Amsterdam/ Atlanta: Rodopi, 2001), p.85-95, and p.116-193 and Lee Morissey's, ''The Constitution of Literature. Literacy, Democracy, and Early English Literary Criticism'' ([[Stanford University Press]], 2008). For the conceptual change see: Rainer Rosenberg, "Eine verworrene Geschichte. Vorüberlegungen zu einer Biographie des Literaturbegriffs", ''Zeitschrift für Literaturwissenschaft und Linguistik'', 77 (1990), p.36-65, Richard Terry, "The Eighteenth-Century Invention of English Literature: A Truism Revisited", ''Journal for Eighteenth Century Studies'', 19.1 (1996), p.47-62.</ref>
 
The modes of this exploration were new. Poetry had been analysed in poetological treatises asking for perfection and the rules that had to be mastered in the different genres. Early 18th-century critics had been ready to see the opera as the central poetic production of the modern era. One would differentiate between an Italian and a French style and consider an international production. This arrangement was discredited in the course of the 18th century. Operas became music and the new literary histories offered in the 19th century focused on the greatest works an outstanding nation or language had brought forth. The new interest lay in interpretations. [[Georg Gottfried Gervinus]]' ''Geschichte der poetischen National-Literatur der Deutschen'', published in its successive volumes between 1835 and 1842 became the European model with a project that rather resembled [[Pierre Daniel Huet]]'s ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans|Treatise on the Origin of Romances]]'' (1670) than any of the previous works on poetry or on literature (the sciences). The new literary historian spoke about the cultural significance of the works he analysed. Unlike Huet Gervinus was solely interested in the works of his nation &ndash; whose history and mentality he hoped do better understand. Other nations were of interest as they had threatened the intellectual development to be observed. Huet had given a world history of fiction. The 19th-century literary historian offered his project with the controversial promise to show how the nation had freed and found itself in its fictional production.
Outside the centre, the market had two wings: On the left hand, one had books which claimed to be romances, but which threatened to be anything but fictitious. [[Delarivier Manley]] wrote the most famous of them, her ''[[New Atalantis]]'', full of stories the author claimed to have invented. The censors were helpless: Manley had hawked stories discrediting the ruling [[British Whig Party|Whigs]], yet should they ask the Whigs to prove that all these stories actually happened on British soil rather than on the fairytale island Atalantis? This was what they had to do if they wanted to sue the author. Delarivier Manley escaped the interrogations unscathed and continued her [[libel]]lous work with three more volumes of the same ilk. Private stories appeared on the same market, creating a different genre of personal love and public battles over lost reputations.
 
The project persuaded scholars in France and Italy to bring forth similar histories for their nations whilst the Anglophone world remained rather uninterested. [[Hippolyte Taine]] eventually offered the first history of English literature at first in French, a year later, in 1864 in an English version that opened with a look back on the first century of modern literary history:
On the other hand, one had a market of titles which claimed to be strictly non-fictional — [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' became the most important of them. The genre-identification: "Sold as true private history, risking to be read as romantic invention" opened the preface:
 
<blockquote>
HISTORY, within a hundred years in Germany, and within sixty years in France, has undergone a transformation owing to a study of literatures.<br />
IF ''ever the Story of any private Man's Adventures in the World were worth making Pvblick, and were acceptable when Publish'd, the Editor of this Account thinks this will be so.''</br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;The discovery has been made that a literary work is not a mere play of the imagination, the isolated caprice of an excited brain, but a transcript of contemporary manners and customs and the sign of a particular state of intellect. The conclusion derived from this is that, through literary monuments, we can retrace the way in which men felt and thought many centuries ago. This method has been tried and found successful.<br />
''The Wonders of this Man's Life exceed all that (he thinks) is to be found extant; the Life of one Man being scarce capable of a greater Variety.<br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;We have meditated over these ways of feeling and thinking and have accepted them as facts of prime significance. We have found that they were dependent on most important events, that they explain these, and that these explain them, and that henceforth it was necessary to give them their place in history, and one of the highest.<ref>.[[Hippolyte Taine]], ''Histoire of English Literature'' [French 1863] (1864) [http://www.bartleby.com/39/46.html online edition]</ref>
''The Story is told with Modesty, with Seriousness, and with a religious Application of Events to the Uses to which wise Men always ap[p]ly them'' (viz.) ''to the Instruction of others by this Example, and to justify and honor the Wisdom of Providence in all the Variety of our Circumstances, let them happen how they will.''</br>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
''The Editor believes the thing to be a just History of Fact; neither is there any Appearance of Fiction in it: And however thinks, because all such things are dispatch'd [later editions: disputed], that the Improvement of it, as well as the Diversion, as to the Instruction of the Reader, will be the same; and as such he thinks, without farther Compliment to the World, he does them a great Service in the Publication.''[http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1719-robinson-crusoe/p-iii.html]
</blockquote>
 
[[File:Charles Dickens, public reading, 1867.jpg|thumb|left|Charles Dickens offering a public reading of his works, a symbol of the new literary life. ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'', December 7, 1867.]]
A production of histories of similar verisimilitude dove into the overtly political. [[Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras]] (1644-1712) became the most important author in this field with his first version of ''[[D'Artagnan Romances|d'Artagnan's]]'' story, told again more than a century later by [[Alexandre Dumas, père|Alexandre Dumas the elder]]. Witty, and a distant precursor of [[Ian Fleming]]'s fictional [[James Bond]], is another book allegedly by his hand: ''La Guerre d'Espagne'' (1707), the story of a disillusioned French spy, who gave insight into French politics, and into his own love affairs, with little intrigues he managed wherever he had to do his jobs. Fact and fiction were mixed in all these titles, to the point that one could no longer tell where the author had invented and where he had simply betrayed secrets.
[[File:Zola sortie.jpg|thumb|left|[[Émile Zola]], the political novelist in the centre of the public outrage he unleashed (painting, 1898).]]
The essentially nationalistic analysis of poetical fictions had begun in Germany in the late 1720s with a look back on three decades of international European fashions. German authors had embraced French "[[gallant]]ry" as the essence of elegance and style. The country had gained nothing in the wars the European nations had supported on behalf of the Empire. The comparatively European decades of the [[Nine Years War]] (1689-1697), the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701-1714) and the [[Great Northern War]] (1700-1721) had eventually left the intellectual elite disenchanted. The discussion of the nation's poetry [[Johann Christoph Gottsched]] proposed at the end of the 1720s formulated a national project connected with the offer to reform the entire market of German poetry. [[Johann Jakob Bodmer]], [[Johann Jakob Breitinger]], and [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]] adopted Gottsched's project and created the national discourse that finally gained national importance between 1789 and 1813 when Germany had to define itself in the events of the [[French Revolution]] and the ensuing [[Napoleonic Wars]].
 
At the turn into the 19th century the first German territories implemented the new field of research in their national school curricula. Three decades later the first histories of German literature apperaed with proposals of the canon the young nation would need.<ref>See for the project of a German "Nationalliteratur": Peter Uwe Hohendahl, ''Building a National Literature: The Case of Germany, 1830-1870'' transl. by Renate Franciscono (Cornell University Press, 1989).</ref> Literature made its way into the educational systems, it became the object of the university philologies, of German classes at schools, and of criticism in the public media.
==="New romance", 1700-1800===
The early eighteenth century — with the novel diving into private and public scandal — had reached a state of affairs where a new reform seemed desirable. The old ''Amadis'' could be said to have driven its readers into dream worlds, and the new novels, devoid of lofty speeches and incredible acts of heroism, had done much to refine taste. Yet they had created entirely new risks, with stories of love in which children cheated their parents, and with which private and public gossip were published on the open market.
 
The new topic was of immense interest thanks to its focus on the nation,<ref>See for the connection of criticism and the (early) modern nation building: Thomas Docherty, ''Criticism and Modernity: Aesthetics, Literature, and Nations in Europe and Its Academies'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 1999) and Terry Eagleton, ''The Function of Criticism'' [1984] (Verso, 2005).</ref> thanks to its controversial perspectives on the nation's history and identity, thanks to its attempts to reform the markets of fiction. The [[secularization]] pushed the new topic in France and Germany. Literature offered worldly texts to be interpreted in schools and at universities where religious texts had been interpreted thus far.<ref>See Ian Hunter, ''Culture and Government. The Emergence of Literary Education'' (Basingstoke, 1988).</ref>
[[Jane Barker]] was among the eighteenth century voices who demanded a return to the old antiquated romance. Her "new romance" ''Exilius'' (1715) opened with the sketch of a new tradition: the romance had, so Jane Barker claimed, developed from Geoffrey Chaucer to [[François Fénelon]]; the latter was the author who had just become famous with his epochal romance ''[[The Adventures of Telemachus|Telemachus]]'' (1699/1700).
 
The Anglophone world adopted the new topic reluctantly. London had developed a commercial production of the belles lettres, independent from the markets of Amsterdam and Paris, as early as the early 1700s. The new market had found its own commercial criticism and did not need an academic variant with a distinctly national perspective. Shakespeare had become an object of national veneration without the help of academic critics by the 1760s. A rediscovery of the past had followed, with such doubtful discoveries as the ''[[Ossian]]''-fragments. Critics discussed the belles lettres in fashionable English journals. Latest theatre performances were discussed in the newspapers at the end of the 18th century. The continental debate of "literature" remained uninteresting with all the academic institutions it promised to generate.
Fénelon's English publishers had carefully avoided the term "romance" and rather published a "new epic in prose" — so the prefaces. Jane Barker insisted, however, on publishing ''Exilius'' as "New Romance [...] after the manner of ''Telemachus''", and failed on the market. In 1719 her publisher, [[Edmund Curll]], finally removed the old title pages and offered her works as a collection of novels.
 
Great Britain did not need new national platforms. State politics and religion were open platforms &ndash; in Britain protected by modern press laws since the 1690s. The continent had opted for a fundamental secularisation. Britain rested on the union of state and church, the USA on the opposite notion of private religiosity and a state that would not interfere. Neither country needed a topic for school lessons, in which worldly texts would be used in much the same way as religious texts had been used before. As for criticism of plays and fictions one could well live with the commercial criticism the market brought forth. Germany invented a dualism of "Literaturwissenschaft", literary criticism formulated by university professors, and "Literaturkritik", literary criticism as to be found in the newspapers. A single word remained enough to speak of literary criticism in English.
The big market success of the next decade, Daniel Defoe's ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', appeared that very year and [[William Taylor (Publisher)|William Taylor]], the publisher, avoided these traps with a title page claiming neither the realm of novels nor that of romances, but that of [[histories (history of the novel)|histories]], yet with a page design tasting all too much of the "new romance" with which Fénelon had just become famous.
 
[[File:Oscarwildetrial.jpg|thumb|right|[[Oscar Wilde]] on trial in 1895.]]
[[Image:Fenelon Telemachus-1715 DeFoe Crusoe 1719.jpg|right|framed|The title pages of both the English edition of Fénelon's ''Telemachus'' (London: E. Curll, 1715) and Defoe's ''Robinson Crusoe'' (London: W. Taylor, 1719): neither of them offer "Novels" as Aphra Behn and William Congreve had done.]]
The new topic was eventually adopted both in Britain and the USA in the 1870 and 1880s. The educational systems of the Western nations developed international standards. The [[Western canon]] became the project of a new international competition.<ref>See on the politics of the 19th and 20th century canon building: John Guillory, ''Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation'' (University of Chicago Press, 1993) and Mihály Szegedy-Maszák, ''Literary Canons: National and International'' (Akadémiai Kiadó, 2001).</ref> The Western nations defined themselves as "Kulturnationen" as exporters of a specific Western civilisation in the middle [[Second European colonization wave (19th century–20th century)|the second European colonization wave]]. To do this they eventually shared the same academic institutions that monitored, evaluated and basically organised their public controversies. Literature and culture had been topics the nations could hope to handle with more competence than religion. The "[[republic of letters]]", the "respublica literaria", the early modern [[scientific community]] that had coined the term literature had definied itself as the first truly pluralistic institution.<ref>See: Sebastian Neumeister und Conrad Wiedemann (eds.), ''Res publica litteraria: Die Institutionen der Gelehrsamkeit in der frühen Neuzeit'' (Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1987) and Dena Goodman, ''The Republic of Letters: A Cultural History of the French Enlightenment'' (Cornell University Press, 1996).</ref> The universities it required would be state run and controlled by the respective nations.
 
The new topic spread in win-win situations. The publishing industry promoted fiction, literature, Belletristik. New authors profited from the exchange. The reading public eagerly followed the debate and was ready to identify with the greatest authors now produced.
Defoe's ''Robinson Crusoe'' was everything but a novel, as the term was understood at the time. It wasn't short, it didn't focus on an intrigue, and it wasn't told for the sake of a clear cut-point. Nor was Crusoe an [[anti-hero]] of a satirical romance, though he spoke in the first person singular and had stumbled into all kinds of miseries. He did not really invite laughter (though readers of taste would read, of course, all his proclamations about being a real man as made in good humour). The feigned author was serious: against his will his life had brought him into this series of most romantic adventures. He had fallen into the hands of [[piracy|pirates]] and survived years on an uninhabited island. He had survived all this — a mere sailor from [[York]] — with exemplary heroism. If readers read his work as a romance, full of sheer invention, he could not blame them. He and his publisher knew that all he had to tell was strictly unbelievable, and yet they would claim it was true (and if not, still readable as good [[allegory]]) — this is the complex game which puts this work into the fourth column of the pattern above.
 
New commercial rules began to structure the exchange. Most of the early 18th-century authors of fiction had published anonymously. They had offered their manuscripts and received all the payment to be expected for the manuscript. The new [[History of copyright law|copyright laws]] introduced in the 18th and 19th centuries<ref>See Mark Rose, ''Authors and Owners: The Invention of Copyright'' 3rd ed. (Harvard University Press, 1993) and Joseph Lowenstein, ''The Author's Due: Printing and the Prehistory of Copyright'' (University of Chicago Press, 2002) and, with a special perspective on the censor's interest to establish copyright laws and thus to fix responsibilities: Lyman Ray Patterson, ''Copyright in Historical Perspective'' (Vanderbilt University Press, 1968).</ref> promised a profit share on all future editions and created a new strategy with the revolutionary work, readers would initially hardly understand. One would publish such a work in a small first edition hoping for critics to prove it into an eternal classic. Novelists, a scandalous branch of authors a century ago, assumed entirely new roles as public voices; they spoke as their nation's conscience, as national sages, as far sighted judges in newspapers, in public debates and in entirely new celebrations of their public status. The novelist who reads in theater halls and book shops is a 19th-century invention.<ref>See Susan Esmann, "Die Autorenlesung – eine Form der Literaturvermittlung", ''Kritische Ausgabe'' 1/2007 [http://kritische-ausgabe.de/hefte/werkstatt/esmann.pdf PDF; 0,8 MB].</ref>
===Reformation, 1700-1800===
[[image:Select Collection Novels 1722.jpg|thumb|400px|Classics of the novel from the sixteenth century onwards: title page of ''A Select Collection of Novels'' (1720-22)]]
The publication of ''Robinson Crusoe'' did not directly lead to the mid-18th century market reform. Crusoe's books were published as dubious histories; they played the game of the scandalous early eighteenth century market, with the novel fully integrated into the realm of histories. They even appeared reprinted by one of the London newspapers as a possibly true relation of facts. Philosophers like [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] turned ''Robinson Crusoe'' into a classic decades later, and it took another century before one could see Defoe's book as the first English "novel" — published, as [[Ian Watt]] saw it in 1957 — as an answer to the market of French romances.
 
Fiction gained new qualities in the exchange. The literary market gave rise to difficult texts that could not hope to be understood without critical interpretations. New novels openly addressed the present political and social issues &ndash; sure to be discussed by media focusing on the same issues. Responsibility became a key issue: Responsibility of the citizen whose voice is heard or responsibility of the artist whose work future generations will have evaluate. The theoretical debate concentrated on the moral soundness of modern novels,<ref>See: James Engell, ''The committed word: Literature and Public Values'' (Penn State Press, 1999) and Edwin M. Eigner, George John Worth (ed.), ''Victorian criticism of the novel'' (Cambridge: CUP Archive, 1985).</ref> on the integrity of individual artists, and on the provocative claims of [[aestheticism|aestheticists]] such as [[Oscar Wilde]] and [[Algernon Charles Swinburne]] who proposed to write "[[art for art's sake]]",<ref>Gene H. Bell-Villada, ''Art for Art's Sake & Literary Life: How Politics and Markets Helped Shape the Ideology & Culture of Aestheticism, 1790-1990'' (University of Nebraska Press, 1996).</ref> that is with a responsibility the present audience and the present critics might not be able to understand.
The reform of the early eighteenth century market of novels came with the production of classics: 1720 saw the decisive edition of classics of the European novel published in London with titles from Machiavelli to Marie de Lafayette. Aphra Behn's "novels" had over the last decades appeared in collections of her works. The author of the 1680s had become a classic by now. Fénelon had become a classic years ago, as had Heliodorus. The works of [[Petronius]] and [[Longos]] appeared, equipped with prefaces which put them into the tradition of prose fiction Huet had defined. Prose fiction itself, according to the critics, had a history of ups and downs: having run into a crisis with the ''Amadis'', it found its remedy with the novel. It now needed continuous care. Yet, all in all, it could claim to be the most elegant part of the ''[[belles lettres]]'', the new market segment within the bigger market of literature, embracing the new classics.
 
The up-market of works deserving to be read as "literature" was matched by a growing market of "popular fictions", "trivial literature" &ndash; a market that discontinued the production of chapbooks and grew in the former field of elegant belles lettres. New institutions like the [[circulating library]] affected the market as platforms publishing houses would address with their first editions. Fiction became the object of a new mass reading public<ref>See Richard Altick and Jonathan Rose, ''The English Common Reader: A Social History of the Mass Reading Public, 1800-1900'', 2nd ed. (Ohio State University Press, 1998) and William St. Clair, ''The Reading Nation in the Romantic Period'' (Cambridge: CUP, 2004).</ref> protected, monitored and analysed by nation wide debates and by institutions the new states would hope to control.
[[Pierre Daniel Huet|Huet]]'s ''[[Traitté de l'origine des romans]]'', first published in 1670 and now circulating in a number of translations and editions, won a central position among those writings which dealt with prose fiction. The ''Treatise'' had created the first corpus of texts to be discussed and it had been the first title that demonstrated how one could "interpret" worldly fictions, just as a theologian would interpret parts of the gospel in a theological debate. The interpretation needed its aims, of course, and Huet had offered a number of questions one could ask: What did the fictional work of a foreign culture or distant period tell us about those who constructed the fiction? What were the cultural needs such stories answered? Are there fundamental anthropological premises which make us create fictional worlds? Did these fictions entertain, divert and instruct? Did they — as one could assume when reading ancient and medieval myths — just provide a substitute for better, more scientific knowledge, or did they add to the luxuries of life a particular culture enjoyed? The ancient Mediterranean erotic stories could afford such an interpretation.
 
The developments did not lead to stable definitions of the terms it popularized. "Art", "literature" and "culture" became much rather the field of controversies authors, critics, and readers would feed in ever new attempts to find platforms for their interests. The exchange affected from now onwards children at school as much as intellectuals who risked their lives in public controversies.
The interpretation and analysis of classics placed readers of fictions in an entirely new and improved position: it made a vast difference whether you read a romance and got lost in a dream world or whether you read the same romance with a preface telling you more about the Greeks, Romans, or Arabs who produced titles like the ''Aethopica'' or ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]]'' (first published in Europe from 1704 to 1715 in French, and translated immediately from this edition into English and German).
 
====Pushing art to its limits: Romanticism, 1770-1850====
===Novels as literature, 1740-1800===
[[File:Juliette Sade Dutch.jpg|thumb|Illustration of a Dutch edition of ''[[Juliette (novel)|Juliette]]'', ca. 1800.]]
[[Image:Richardson pamela 1741.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Samuel Richardson]]'s ''Pamela'' (1741), published with clear intentions: "Now first published in order to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes, A Narrative which has the Foundation in Truth and Nature; and at the same time that it agreeably entertains..."]]
The very word ''[[romanticism]]'' made direct reference to the art of romances. The genre, as opposed to the modern novel, experienced a revival with [[gothic fiction]] from [[Ann Radcliffe]]'s "romance" ''[[The Mysteries of Udolpho]]'' (1794) to [[Matthew Lewis (writer)|M.G. Lewis]]' "romance" ''[[The Monk]]'' (1795).<ref>See for the following Gerald Ernest Paul Gillespie, Manfred Engel, and Bernard Dieterle, ''Romantic prose fiction'' (John Benjamin's Publishing Company, 2008).</ref>
The early eighteenth century market for classics of prose fiction inspired living authors. Aphra Behn, writing in relative anonymity, became a celebrated author posthumously. Fénelon achieved the same fame during his lifetime. Delarivier Manley, Jane Barker and [[Eliza Haywood]] followed their famous French models who had dared to claim fame with their real names: the [[Madame d'Aulnoy]] and [[Anne Marguerite Petit du Noyer]]. Most novels had previously been pseudonymous; now they became the productions of famous authors.
 
The new romances not only attacked the modern novel's "natural" depictions of life, they destabilized the very differentiation modern critics had been trying to establish between serious classical art and popular fiction. Gothic romances were grotesque.<ref>See Geoffrey Galt Harpham,'' On the Grotesque: Strategies of Contradiction in Art and Literature'', 2nd ed. (Davies Group, Publishers, 2006).</ref> Their subject matter deserved less credit than the worst medieval tales of Arthurian knighthood. If the ''Amadis'' had troubled Don Quixote with curious fantasies, the new romantic tales were worse: they became nightmares, they explored sexual fantasies, they led to the end of human civilization.
The discourse necessary to appreciate such a move towards responsibility was yet underdeveloped. Journals discussing literature focussed on "learning", literature in the strict sense of the word. So far, most discussion of novels and romances had taken place within the field itself. [[Literary criticism]], a critical, external discourse about poetry and fiction, arose only in the second half of the eighteenth century. It opened an interaction between separate participants in which novelists would write in order to be criticised and in which the public would observe the interaction between critics and authors. The new criticism of the late eighteenth century offered a reform by establishing a market of works worthy to be discussed (whilst the rest of the market would thus continue but lose most of its public appeal). The result was a market division into a low field of [[popular fiction]]s and a critical [[literary fiction|literary production]]. The latter, privileged works — those which rivalled ancient verse epics to be discussed as art, which played with the traditions of prose fiction (they opened an internal discourse about the [[history of literature]]), and which were of a clearly defined fictional status — these alone could be discussed as works created by an artist who wanted this and no other story to be discussed by the audience.
 
The authors of this new type of fiction could be (and were) accused of exploiting all available topics to thrill, arouse or horrify their audience. These new romantic novelists could, at the same time, claim to explore the entire realm of fictionality. New–psychological–interpreters would read these works as encounters with the deeper hidden truth of the human imagination or the collective mind with all its recesses: [[Human sexuality|sexual motives]], [[Angst|anxieties]], and insatiable [[desire]]s. Under a psychological reading, novels were said to explore our deeper motives by moving into the field of art and by trying to reach and transgress its limitations. Artistic freedom would reveal what had not previously been openly visible: a theory that turned Huet's retrospective cultural description into an exploration of our options. The [[fragment]] was allowed to become art surpassing all the works of intricate composition. Terror and kitsch entered the productions with explorations of the trivial.
Design of title pages changed: new novels no longer pretended to sell fictions whilst threatening to betray real secrets. Nor did they appear as false "[[histories (history of the novel)|true histories]]". The new title pages pronounced their works to be fictions, and indicated how the public might discuss them. [[Samuel Richardson]]’s ''[[Pamela|Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded]]'' (1740) was one of the titles which brought the novel-title, with its ''[...], or [...]'' formula offering an example, into the new format: "Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded – Now first published in order to cultivate the Principles of Virtue and Religion in the Minds of the Youth of Both Sexes, A Narrative which has the Foundation in Truth and Nature; and at the same time that it agreeably entertains…" So the title page read, and made it clear that the work was crafted by an artist aiming at a certain effect, yet to be discussed by the critical audience. A decade later novels needed no status other than that of being novels: fiction. Present-day editions of novels simply state "Fiction" on the cover. It had become prestigious to be sold under the label, asking for discussion and thought.
 
The romantic fiction of [[Marquis de Sade|de Sade]], [[Edgar Allan Poe|Poe]], [[Mary Shelley]] and [[E. T. A. Hoffmann]], their works from ''[[120 Days of Sodom|Les 120 Journées de Sodome]]'' (1785/1904), ''[[Die Elixiere des Teufels]]'' (1815), to ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818), and the ''Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque'' (1840) would later attract 20th-century psychoanalysts and supply the images of 20th and 21st century horror films, [[romance novel|love romances]], [[fantasy]] novels, [[Role-playing game|role-playing]] computer games and [[surrealism|surrealist]] art.
Scandal as published by DuNoyer or Delarivier Manley vanished from the market of prose fiction — whether [[high culture|high]] or [[low culture]]. It could not attract serious critics and was lost if it remained undiscussed. It ultimately needed its own brand of scandalous journalism, which developed into the [[yellow press]]. The low market of prose fiction went on to focus on immediate satisfaction of an audience enjoying its stay in the fictional world. The high market grew complex, with works playing new games.
 
===="Realism" and the reevaluation of the past and the present, 1790-1900====
In the high market, one could eventually see two traditions developing: one of works playing with the art of fiction — [[Laurence Sterne]]’s ''[[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman|Tristram Shandy]]'' among them — the other closer to the prevailing discussions and moods of its audience. The great conflict of the nineteenth century, as to whether artists should write to satisfy the public or whether to produce [[art for art's sake]], was yet to come.
[[File:UncleTomsCabinCover.jpg|thumb|[[Harriet Beecher Stowe]]'s ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' (1852)]]
The ancient romancers most commonly wrote fiction about the remote past. The present had been the object of "curious" explorations in the hands of satirists like [[Grimmelshausen]] and [[Richard Head]] and in the hands of scandalous authors from [[Gatien de Courtilz de Sandras|de Courtilz de Sandras]] to the anonymous author of ''La Guerre d'Espagne'' (Cologne: Pierre Marteau, 1707).
 
[[File:T25-011.jpg|thumb|[[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[War and Peace]]'' (1868/69)]]
===Sentimentalism, psychology, and the new individual, 1750-1850===
[[File:20000 Nautilus engines.jpg|thumb|Illustration for [[Jules Verne]]'s ''Vingt mille lieues sous les mers'' (1870)]]
The mid- and late eighteenth century "[[sentimental novel|novel of sentimentalism]]" produced an entirely new individual, one with a different attitude towards privacy and the public. Whereas the early eighteenth century heroine had been bold and ready to protect her reputation if necessary in a press war, her mid-18th century descendant was far too modest and shy to do the same. Early eighteenth century heroines had their secrets, they loved effective intrigues, they tried whatever they felt necessary to get what they wanted. Mid-18th century heroines developed a feeling of modesty. They suffered if they had to keep secrets and felt an urge to confess. They searched for friends and intimacy, for situations in which they could freely open their hearts and speak of their deepest wishes.
[[Walter Scott]]'s [[historical novel]] ''[[Waverley (novel)|Waverley]]'' (1814) broke with these traditions. Scott did not write to satisfy the audience with temporal escapism, nor did he threaten the boundaries between fact and fiction with his works, as Constantin de Renneville had done with his ''French Inquisition'' (1715). Scott's work remained a novel, a work of art.<ref>The early reviews immediately argued in this direction. See John Wilson Croker's criticism in his article "Waverley; or, 'tis Sixty Years since", ''Quarterly Review'' (November 1814), 354-77.</ref> He used the art of imagination to re-evaluate history by rendering things, incidents and protagonists as only the novelist was allowed to do. His work remained historical fiction, yet it questioned existing historical perceptions. The special power was partly gained through research: Scott the novelist, resorted to documentary sources as any historian would have done, but as an artist he gave things a deeper significance. Attracting a far wider market than any historian could address, and rendering the past vividly, his work destabilized public perceptions of that past.
 
Most 19th-century authors hardly went beyond illustrating and supporting widespread historical views.<ref>For the wider context of 19th century encounters with history see: [[Hayden White]], ''[[Metahistory|Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe]]'' (Baltimore: [[Johns Hopkins University]], 1977).</ref> The more interesting titles won fame by doing what no historian nor journalist would do: make the reader experience another life. [[Émile Zola]]'s novels depicted the world of which [[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]] wrote in a non-fictional mode. [[Slavery in the United States]], [[abolitionism]] and [[racism]] became topics of far broader public debate thanks to [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]]'s ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' (1852), as whose characters provided personifications for topics that had previously been discussed mainly in the abstract. [[Charles Dickens]] led the audience into contemporary British [[workhouses]]: his novels imitated firsthand accounts of [[child labour]]. War changed with [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[War and Peace]]'' (1868/69) from historical fact to a world of personal fate. Crime became a personal reality with [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]'s ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' (1866). Women authors had dominated the production of fiction from the 1640s into the early 1700s, but few before [[George Eliot]] so openly questioned the position of women, the precepts of their education, and their social position.
The eighteenth century audience saw these new heroes and heroines with amazement. When it came to their most secret wishes they dared to confide in their parents and friends — a trust which would have made them easy victims in the early eighteenth century world of fiction, libel, intrigue and scandal. Now, however, these weak heroines met an environment of compassion. Instead of making their affairs a public entertainment, the new heroes and heroines developed an intimacy into which the novel alone could take a careful look.
 
As the novel became the most interesting platform of modern debates–allegedly free, as art could claim to be in the modern secular western societies–a race began between nations to (re-)establish their national literatures with novels as the essential production that could link the present with the past. [[Alessandro Manzoni]]'s, ''[[The Betrothed (Manzoni novel)|I Promessi Sposi]]'' (1827) did this for Italy; Russia and the surrounding Slavonic brought forth their first novels; the Scandinavian countries entered the race.
Special genres flourished with these protagonists who would not wash their dirty linen in public. Their letters or diaries were found and published only after their deaths. A wave of sentimentalism was the first result, leading to heroes like [[Henry Mackenzie]]'s ''Man of Feeling'' (1771). A second wave followed with more radical heroes who could no longer dream of an environment understanding them. [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s ''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther]]'' (1774) was at the forefront of the new movement, and yielded a wave of compassion and understanding with readers ready to follow Werther into his suicide.
 
With the new appreciation of history, the future also became a topic for fiction. [[Samuel Madden]]'s ''Memoirs of the Twentieth Century'' (1733) had been a satire, presenting a future that was basically the present age, but with the [[Jesuit]]s secretly ruling the globe. [[Louis-Sébastien Mercier]]‘s ''L'An 2440'' (1771) had gone a step further and created an enlightened future, that one could establish immediately if only one dared to live according to better moral precepts. The step into a different future began with [[Mary Shelley]]'s ''[[The Last Man]]'' (1826): a work whose plot culminated in the catastrophic last days of a mankind extinguished by the plague, even if it remained an autobiographical allegory of the authoress deploring her personal losses. [[Edward Bellamy]]'s ''[[Looking Backward]]'' (1887) and [[H. G. Wells]]'s ''[[The Time Machine]]'' (1895) were, by contrast, marked by the idea of long term technological and biological developments. [[Industrialization]], [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s [[theory of evolution]] and Marx's theory of [[social class|class]] divisions shaped these works and turned historical processes into a subject matter of wide debate: Bellamy's ''Looking Backward'' became the second best selling book of the 19th century after Harriet Beecher-Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin''.<ref>See Scott Donaldson and Ann Massa ''American Literature: Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries'' (David & Charles, 1978), p. 205. On the publishing history of ''Uncle Tom's Cabin'': Claire Parfait, ''The Publishing History of Uncle Tom's Cabin, 1852-2002'' (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007).</ref> Such works of scientific reflection inspired a whole genre of popular [[science fiction]] as the 20th century approached.
Critics embraced the new heroes as the best sign of a new literature which aimed at discussions. The understanding these heroes craved for afforded a secondary discussion — a discussion of the nature of the human psyche so much better observed by these new novels.
 
====Explorations of the self and the modern individual, 1790-1930====
The novel, with these developments, had turned advocacy of individual and societal moral reform into a genre. With the [[romanticism|romantic movement]] beginning in the 1770s, the development went one step further: the novel became the medium of an ''[[avant garde]]'', the genre where emotions found their test cases. German authors developed the ''[[Bildungsroman]]'', a novel focussing on the development of the individual, their education and their way into individuality and society. New sciences like sociology to psychology developed along with the new individual and influenced the discussions surrounding the novel in the nineteenth century.
[[File:Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre 1795.jpg|thumb|[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s ''[[Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship|Wilhelm Meister]]'' (1795)]]
The [[individual]], the potentially isolated hero, had stood at the centre of romantic fictions since the Middle Ages. The early novel(la) had placed the story itself at the centre: it was driven by plot, by incident and accident, rather than being the story of a single larger-than-life figure. And yet, the individual had returned with a wave of satirical romances and historical pseudo romances. Individuals such as Robinson Crusoe, Moll Flanders, Pamela, and Clarissa reintroduced the old romantic focus on the individual as the centre of what was to become the modern novel.
 
Ancient, medieval and early modern fictional characters lacked certain features that modern readers expect. Epics and romances created heroes, individuals who would fight against knight after knight, change (as an Assyrian princess) into men's clothes, survive alone on an island &ndash; whilst it would never see its personal experience as an individualizing factor. The early modern novelist had remained a historian as much as the author of the most personal French contemporary memoir. As soon as it came to relating the facts and experiences, it became a question of proper writing skills.
===19th century===
At the beginning of the seventeenth century the novel had been a genre of [[realism (arts)|realism]] fighting the [[romance (genre)|romance]] with its wild fantasies. The novel had turned first to scandal before undergoing reform over the last decades of the eighteenth century. Fiction eventually became the most honourable field of literature. This development culminated in a wave of novels of fantasy at the turn of the nineteenth century. [[Sensibility]] was heightened in these novels. Women, overwrought and prone to imagining worlds beyond their appointed one, became the heroines of the new world of "romances" and "[[gothic novel]]s" creating stories in distant times and places. Renaissance Italy was a favorite setting of the gothic novel.
 
The modern individual changed. The rift can first be seen in the works of medieval [[mysticism|mystics]] and early modern [[Spiritual autobiography|Protestant autobiographers]]:<ref>See D. Bruce Hindmarsh, ''The Evangelical Conversion Narrative: Spiritual Autobiography in Early Modern England'' (Oxford University Press, 2005), Owen C. Watkins, ''The Puritan Experience: Studies in Spiritual Autobiography'' (Routledge & K. Paul, 1972).</ref> moments in which they witnessed a change in their very experience of things, an inner isolation they would only be able to communicate to someone who had experienced the same. The sentimental experience created a new field of – secular, rather than religiously motivated – individualizations which immediately invited followers to join. [[The Sorrows of Young Werther|Werther]]'s step out of the value systems that surrounded him, his desperate search for the one and only soul to understand him, inspired an instantaneous European fashion. [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] told [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] he had read the volume about a dozen times;<ref>See Gustav Seibt, ''Goethe und Napoleon. Eine historische Begegnung'' (München: C. H. Beck, 2008).</ref> others were seen wearing breeches in Werther's colour to signal that they were experiencing the same exceptionalism. The novel proved the ideal medium for the new movements as it was ultimately written from an individual's point of view with the aim to unfold in the silence of another's individual mind.
The classic gothic novel is [[Ann Radcliffe]]’s ''[[The Mysteries of Udolpho]]'' (1794). As in other gothic novels, the notion of the ''[[sublime (philosophy)|sublime]]'' is central. Eighteenth-century aesthetic theory held that the sublime and the beautiful were juxtaposed. The sublime was ''awful'' (literally, "awe-inspiring") and terrifying while the beautiful was calm and reassuring. Gothic characters and landscapes rest almost entirely within the sublime, with the heroine the great exception. The "beautiful" heroine's susceptibility to supernatural elements, integral to these novels, both celebrates and [[problematizes]] what came to be seen as hypersensibility.
 
The late 18th-century exploration of personal developments created room for depictions of personal experiences; it gained momentum with the romantic exploration of fictionality as a medium of creative imagination; and it gained a political edge with the 19th-century focus on history and the modern societies. The rift between the individual and his or her social environment had to have roots in personal developments which this individual shared with those around him or her, with his or her class or the entire nation. Any such rift had the power to criticize the collective histories the modern nations were just then producing. The new personal perceptions the protagonists of novels offered were on the other hand interesting as they could easily become part of the collective experience the modern nation had to create.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the overwrought emotions of sensibility, as expressed through the gothic sublime, had run their course. [[Jane Austen]] with ''[[Northanger Abbey]]'' (1803) parodied the gothic novel, reflecting its death. Moreover, while sensibility did not disappear, it was less valued. Austen introduced a different style of writing, the "[[comedy of manners]]". Her novels often are not only funny, but also scathingly critical of the restrictive, rural culture of the early nineteenth century. Her best known novel, ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'' (1811), is her happiest, and has been a blueprint for much subsequent romantic fiction. Austen's novels still retain a wide following, despite the distance between their heroines' dilemmas and those of the reader today.
 
[[File:MS A la recherche du temps perdu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|right|First galley proof of ''[[In Search of Lost Time]]'' (1913-1927) with handwritten revision notes by [[Marcel Proust]].]]
==== Separation of high and low production ====
The novel's individual perspective allowed for personal reevaluations of the public historical perceptions and it allowed for personal developments that could still lead back into modern societies. The 19th-century [[Bildungsroman]] became the arena of such explorations of personal developments that separated the individual from, and then reunited it with, his or her social environment. Outsider perspectives became the field of mid-19th-century explorations. The artist's life had been an interesting topic before with the artist being by public definition the exceptional individual whose perceptions naturally enabled him to produce different views. Novels from Goethe's ''[[Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship|Wilhelm Meister]]'' (1795) to [[Marcel Proust]]'s ''[[In Search of Lost Time]]'' (1913-1927) and [[James Joyce]]'s ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' (1916) created an entire genre of the [[Künstlerroman]]. [[Jane Austen]]'s ''[[Emma]]'' (1815), [[Gustave Flaubert]]'s ''[[Madame Bovary]]'' (1856), [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[Anna Karenina]]'' (1873-77), and [[George Eliot]]'s ''[[Middlemarch]]'' (1871-72) brought female protagonists into the role of the outstanding observer. [[Charles Dickens]]'s ''[[Oliver Twist]]'' (1839) and [[Gottfried Keller]]'s ''[[Green Henry]]'' (1855) focused on the perspectives of [[child]]ren, [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]'s ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' (1866) added a drop-out student who became a murderer to the spectrum of special observers whose views would promise reinterpretations of modern life.
 
The exploration of the individual's perception eventually revolutionized the very modes of writing fiction. The search for one's personal style stood in the centre of the competition among authors in the 19th century, now that novelists had become publicly celebrated minds. The destabilization of the author-text connection, which 20th century criticism was to propose later on, finally led to experiments with what had been the individual's voice so far – speaking through the author or portrayed by him. These options were to be widened with new concepts of what texts actually were with the beginning of the 20th century.
The market for novels in the nineteenth century was clearly separated into "high" and "low" production. The new high production can best be viewed in terms of national traditions. The low production was organized rather by genres in a pattern deriving from the spectrum of seventeenth- and eighteenth-century genres.
 
===The novel and the global market of texts: 20th- and 21st-century developments===
'''1. The novel as a literary production, promoted by critical discourse
[[Image:1933-may-10-berlin-book-burning.JPG|thumb|Berlin, May 10, 1933, [[Nazi book burnings|Nazi book burning]].]]
[[File:Beauvoir Sartre - Che Guevara -1960 - Cuba.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Simone de Beauvoir]], [[Jean Paul Sartre]] and [[Che Guevara]] meeting in Cuba, 1960]]
[[File:Salman Rushdie, Satanic Verses -1988- illegal Iranian edition.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Persian [[Samizdat]] edition of [[Salman Rushdie]]'s ''[[The Satanic Verses|Satanic Verses]]'' late 1990s?]]
[[File:Nobel2008Literature news conference1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Announcement of the Laureate of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] 2008]]
Given the number of new editions and the place of the modern novel among the genres sold in bookshops today, the novel is far from the crisis predicted by critics such as [[John Barth]] (himself a novelist) or, more recently, [[Alvin Kernan]]. Literature has not ended in "exhaustion"<ref>John Barth "The Literature of Exhaustion" (1967)</ref> or in a silent "death";<ref> Alvin Kernan, ''The Death of Literature'' (Yale University Press, 1990).</ref> nor have bound paper books been superseded by such new media as cinema, television or such new channels of distribution as the Internet<ref>The entire English book production from 1473 to 1700 became available to experts through [[Text Creation Partnership|Early English Books Online]] and the production from 1700 to 1800 through [[Eighteenth Century Collections Online]]. [[Bibliothèque nationale de France|Gallica France]] provides similar services for all French readers. [[Google]] is currently scanning massive numbers of 19th-century books. [[Html]] databases such as [[Project Gutenberg]] offer classic fiction. Modern Internet fiction exists on numerous platforms, with a special emphasis on graphic novels.</ref> or [[e-book]]s. Novels such as the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' (1997-2007) books have created public sensation among an audience critics had seen as lost.<ref>As of June 2008, the ''Potter'' series has sold more than 400 million copies and has been translated into 67 languages. {{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2008/jun/18/harrypotter.artsandentertainment|author=Guy Dammann|work=The Guardian|title=Harry Potter breaks 400m in sales|date=June 18, 2008|publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited|accessdate=2008-10-17}}</ref>
 
Novels were among the first material artefacts the [[National Socialism|Nazis]] [[Nazi book burnings|burnt in public celebrations]] of their power in 1933;<ref>Jan-Pieter Barbian, ''Literaturpolitik im "Dritten Reich". Institutionen, Kompetenzen, Betätigungsfelder'', new edition (Stuttgart: dtv, 1995).</ref> and they remained the very last thing they allowed their publishers to print as [[World War II]] ended in the devastation of central Europe: fiction could still be employed to keep the retreating troops in dream worlds of an idyllic homeland waiting for them.<ref>See the chapters on the war production of the most important German publisher of the period in [[Saul Friedländer]], Norbert Frei, Trutz Rendtorff and Reinhard Wittmann (eds.), ''Bertelsmann im Dritten Reich'' (Gütersloh: Bertelsmann, 2002). See also: Hans-Eugen and Edelgard Bühler, ''Der Frontbuchhandel 1939-1945. Organisationen, Kompetenzen, Verlage, Bücher'' (Frankfurt am Main: Buchhändler-Vereinigung, 2002).</ref> Novels were in the pockets of American soldiers who went to Vietnam and in the pockets of those who protested against the [[Vietnam War]]: [[Hermann Hesse]]'s ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'' and [[Carlos Castaneda]]'s ''[[Journey to Ixtlan]]'' (1972) had become cult classics of inner resistance. Whilst it was difficult to learn anything about Siberia's concentration camps in the strictly censored Soviet media, it was a novel, [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]'s ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]'' (1962) and its proto-historic expansion ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' (1973) that eventually gave the world an inside view.
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<td bgcolor="#E1E1E1" width="18%" valign="top" align="left">'''Spanish Literature'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#E1E1E1" width="18%" valign="top" align="left">'''French Literature'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#E1E1E1" width="18%" valign="top" align="left">'''German Literature'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#E1E1E1" width="18%" valign="top" align="left">'''English Literature'''</td>
<td width="18%" valign="top" align="left">''…by language and nation''</td>
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</table>
</center>
 
The novel remains both public and private. It is a public product of modern print culture even where it circulates in illegal [[samizdat]] copies. It remains difficult to target. Totalitarian regimes can close down [[Internet service provider]]s, and control theatres, cinemas, radio and television stations, whilst individual paper copies of a novel can be smuggled into countries, defying strict [[censorship]], and read there in cafés and parks almost as safely as at home. Its covers can be as inconspicuous as those of Iranian editions of [[Salman Rushdie]]'s ''[[The Satanic Verses]]'' (1988). An [[Orwellian]] regime would have to search households and to burn every retrievable copy: an engagement of utopian dimensions that only a novel, [[Ray Bradbury]]'s ''[[Fahrenheit 451]]'' (1953), would envisage.
<hr width="90%" />
 
The artefact that constituted one of the earliest flashpoints in the current cultural confrontation between the secular West and the Islamic East, Rushdie's ''Satanic Verses'' (1988), exemplifies almost all the advantages the modern novel has over its rivals. It is a work of epic dimensions no film maker could achieve, a work of privacy and individuality of perspective wherever it leads into the dream worlds of its protagonists, a work that uniquely anticipated ensuing political debates, and a work many Western critics classified as one of the greatest novels ever written. It is [[postmodern]]ist in its ability to play with the entire field of literary traditions without ever sacrificing its topicality.<ref>See: Sabrina Hassumani, ''Salman Rushdie: a postmodern reading of his major works'' (Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 2002).</ref>
'''2. Popular Fiction''', not promoted by criticism
 
The democratic West depicted itself as the advocate of literature as the freest form of self-expression. The Islamic fundamentalist interpretation of the same confrontation has its own historical validity. This interpretation sees a conflict between Western secular nations and a [[postsecularism|postsecular]] religious world.<ref>See e.g. Malise Ruthven, ''A satanic affair: Salman Rushdie and the rage of Islam'' (Chatto & Windus, 1990), Girja Kumar, ''The book on trial: fundamentalism and censorship in India'' (Har-Anand Publications, 1997) and Madelena Gonzalez, ''Fiction After the Fatwa: Salman Rushdie and the Charm of Catastrophe'' (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2005).</ref> In this view, the West has severed its religious roots and begun to idolize an arrangement of secular "pluralistic" debates. "Literature", "art", and "history" &ndash; the subject matter of the humanities &ndash; have become a Western substitute for religion. The Islamic republic eventually demonstrated how far the West had created its own inviolable if not sacred spheres in this development: Westerners can become atheists, they can admire any "blasphemy" as "art", but they cannot act with the same freedom in the field of history. [[Holocaust denial]] is crimininalised in several Western nations in defence of secular pluralism. The Islamic nations protect, so goes the rationale, at the heart of the conflict a different hierarchy of discourses.
<center>
<table width="750" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="15";">
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<td width="20%" bgcolor="#F3F3F3" valign="top" align="left">1<br>The modern ''[[roman à clef]]'' (a recent example is ''[[Primary Colors]]'')</td>
<td width="20%" bgcolor="#E8E8E8" valign="top" align="left">2<br>Sex, including soft "romantic" pornography for the female audience</td>
<td width="20%" bgcolor="#E1E1E1" valign="top" align="left">3<br>Historical settings (the tradition of heroic romances), crime (the tradition of the seventeenth century novel)</td>
<td width="20%" bgcolor="#E8E8E8" valign="top" align="left">4<br>Adventure, [[science fiction]]</td>
<td width="20%" bgcolor="#F3F3F3" valign="top" align="left">5<br>Espionage, conspiracy</td>
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</table>
</center>
 
In a longer perspective, the conflict arose with the worldwide expansion of Western literary and cultural life in the 20th century. To look back, around 1700 fiction had been a small but virulent market of fashionable books in the sphere of public history. By contrast, in 19th century Europe the novel had become the center of a new literary debate. The 20th century began with the Western export of new global conflicts, new technologies of [[telecommunication]] and new industries. The new arrangement of the academic disciplines became a world standard. Within this system the [[humanities]] are the ensemble of subjects that evaluate and organise public debate, from art and literature to history.<ref>See: Donovan R. Walling, ''Under Construction: The Role of the Arts and Humanities in Postmodern Schooling'' (Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation, 1997).</ref> Former colonies and modern third world nations adopted this arrangement in their educational systems in order to pursue equal footing with the "leading" industrial nations. Literature entered their public spheres almost automatically as the arena of free personal expression and as a field of national pride in which one had to search for one's historical identity, as the Western nations had done before.
The position of authors attained its modern form with the establishment of this pattern. The modern author can either aim at a broad market or write with an eye to serious critical discussion. The borders between the realms have developed differently in different nations. While this modern market divide came relatively late to the English-speaking world, Germany and France had an earlier and much stronger interest in creating national literatures — France in the wake of the [[French Revolution]], Germany during its [[German Empire#Bismarck.27s founding of the Empire|mid-19th century unification]]. Both of these nations experienced a division between high literature — discussed in schools and newspapers, and celebrated in public life — and a low production — not worthy to be mentioned in such circles — while the vast commercial market of the English-speaking world still resisted this artificial divide.
 
[[File:Literary Communication.gif|thumb|340px|left|Model of 20th-century literary [[communication]]. A complex interaction is organised by public and academic literary criticism as the central provider of discussions, education and media attention.]]
The novel proved to be a medium for a communication both intimate (novels can be read privately whereas plays are always a public event) and public (novels are published and thus become a matter touching the public, if not the nation, and its vital interests), a medium of a personal point of view which can get the world into its view. New modes of interaction between authors and the public reflected these developments: authors giving public readings, receiving prestigious prizes, giving interviews in the media and acting as their nations' consciences. This concept of the novelist as public figure arose in the course of the nineteenth century.
A number of literatures could challenge the West with traditions of their own: Chinese novels are older than any comparable Western works. Other regions of the world had to begin their traditions as the Slavonic and Scandinavian nations had done in the 19th-century's European competition: South Asia<ref>See Paul Brian, ''Modern South Asian Literature in English'' (Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Press, 2003).</ref> and Latin America joined the production of world literature at the beginning of the 20th century. The run for the first black African novel to be written by a black African author is today a topic of research in [[postcolonialism|postcolonialist]] literary studies.<ref>See for the rise of postcolonial literatures Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths, Helen Tiffin (eds.), ''The empire writes back: theory and practice in post-colonial literatures'', 2nd edition (Routledge, 2002).</ref> The race was fueled by Western theories of cultural superiority: 20th-century critics such as [[Georg Lukács]] and [[Ian Watt]] saw the novel as the form of self expression characteristic of the "modern Western individual". The worldwide spread of the novel was monitored and mentored by such Western institutions as the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. The [[List of Nobel laureates in Literature|list of its laureates]] can be read as a chronicle of the gradual expansion of Western literary life.<ref>See: Kjell Espmark, ''The Nobel Prize in literature: a study of the criteria behind the choices'' (G.K. Hall, 1991), Julia Lovell, ''The politics of cultural capital: China's quest for a Nobel Prize in literature'' (University of Hawaii Press, 2006) und Richard Wires, ''The Politics of the Nobel Prize in Literature: How the Laureates Were Selected, 1901-2007'' (Edwin Mellen Press, 2009).</ref> [[Rabindranath Tagore]] was the first Indian poet and novelist to receive the prize in 1913, Japanese [[Yasunari Kawabata]] received it in 1968, Colombian [[Gabriel García Márquez]] in 1982; the Nigerian [[Wole Soyinka]], honoured in 1986, became the first black African author to receive the award; the Egyptian [[Naguib Mahfouz]] became the first novelist of the Arab world to do so in 1988; [[Orhan Pamuk]], honoured in 2006, is a Turkish novelist. The awards to Mahfouz and Pamuk were seen in their home countries as open interference by the [[Swedish Academy]] into their respective national politics. Mahfouz, one of the most important Muslim authors who defended Rushdie's ''Satanic Verses'', was almost killed in an assassination attempt outside his home. Pamuk continues to criticize the official Turkish position towards the [[Armenian Genocide]], a question relevant to the present debate over [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union]].
 
[[File:2001 Numbers of Titles published in the UK.png|thumb|right|Numbers of titles published in the UK in 2001.]]
===20th century===
[[File:2008 UK Book Sales Volume.svg|thumb|right|Total consumer market, UK, 2008; value in £m]]
:''See [[Modernist literature]] and [[Postmodern literature]]''
The contemporary novel defends the significance it had won by the 1860s, and it has stepped beyond, into a new awareness of its public [[outreach]]. Nationwide debates can become international debates at any given moment. Today's novelists can address a worldwide public, with international institutions, prestigious [[List of literary awards|prizes]],<ref>See James F. English, The Economy of Prestige (2005).</ref> and such far-reaching associations as the worldwide association of writers [[P.E.N.]] The exiled author,<ref>See: Andrew Gurr, ''Writers in exile: the identity of home in modern literature'' (Brighton, Sussex: Harvester Pr., 1981); John Glad (ed.), ''Literature in exile'' (Durham: Duke Univ. Pr., 1990); David Bevan (ed.), ''Literature and exile'' (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1990); James Whitlark and Wendell Aycock (eds.) ''The literature of emigration and exile'' (Lubbock, Tex: Texas Tech University Press, 1992); and Guy Stern, ''Literarische Kultur im Exil: gesammelte Beiträge zur Exilforschung (1989 - 1997)'' (Dresden: Dresden Univ. Press, 1998).</ref> who is celebrated by the international audience whilst he or she is persecuted at home is a 20th-century (and now 21st-century) figure. The author as keeper of his or her nation's conscience is a new cultural icon of the age of [[globalization]].
 
Back in the early 18th century some 20-60 titles per year, that is between one and three percent of the total annual English production of about 2,000 titles, could be reckoned as fiction &ndash; a total of 20,000-60,000 copies on the assumption of standard print runs of about 1,000 copies. In 2001 fiction made about 11% of the 119,001 titles published in the UK consumer book market. The percentage has remained relatively stable over the past 20 years, though the total numbers doubled from 5,992 in 1986 to 13,076 in 2001.<ref>Data published in ''The Bookseller'' and made available at [http://www.bookmarketing.co.uk/index.cfm/asset_id,885/index.html Book Marketing Ltd.]</ref> The press output and the money made with fiction have risen disproportionately since the 18th century: According to [[Nielsen BookScan]] statistics published in 2009<ref>See the [http://www.bookscan.com/uploads/press/BookSalesHoldOwnIn2008_Feb09.pdf Press Release] issued of February 9, 2009.</ref> UK publishers sold an estimated 236.8 million books in 2008. Adult fiction (an estimated 75.3 million copies) made 32% of this market. Children's, young adult and educational books, a section comprising [[List of best-selling books|best-sellers]] such as the ''Harry Potter'' volumes, made another 63.4 million copies, 27%. The total UK consumer market is supposed to have had a value £1,773m in 2008. Adult fiction made roughly a quarter of that value: £454m.
==Important novels==
===Western precursors===
These are the earliest extant Western precursors to the novel:
*[[Xenophon]], ''[[Cyropaedia (Xenophon)|The Education of Cyrus]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]], 4th century BC), a largely fictional account of the education of Emperor [[Cyrus the Great]] of [[Persian Empire|Persia]]; considered a precursor to the novel
*[[Petronius Arbiter|Petronius]], ''[[Satyricon]]'' ([[Latin]], 1st century AD)
*[[Apuleius]], ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' ([[Latin]], 2nd century)
*[[Chariton]], ''[[The Loves of Chaereas and Callirhoe]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]], 1st–2nd century)
*[[Achilles Tatius]], ''[[Leucippe and Clitophon]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]], 2nd century)
*[[Longus]], ''[[Daphnis and Chloe]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]], 2nd century)
*[[Xenophon of Ephesus]], ''[[Ephesian Tale]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]], 2nd–3rd century)
*[[Heliodorus of Emesa|Heliodorus]], ''[[Ethiopian Tale]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]], 3rd–4th century)
*''[[Acts of Xanthippe, Polyxena, and Rebecca]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]], 3rd–4th century)
*''[[Joseph and Aseneth]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]], 1st–5th century)
*''[[Apollonius King of Tyre|The Story of Apollonius, King of Tyre]]'' ([[Latin]] adaptation of lost [[Greek language|Greek]] original, 5th–6th century)
*''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]] ''([[Irish language|Irish]], 8th century)''
 
A vibrant literary life fuels the market. It unfolds in a complex interaction between authors, their [[publishing|publishing houses]], the reading public, and a literary criticism of immense diversity voiced in the media and in the nation's educational systems. The latter provide through their branches of academic criticism many of the topics, the modes of discussion and to a good extent the experts themselves who teach and discuss literature in schools and in the media. Modern marketing of fiction reflects this complex interaction with an awareness of the specific reverberations a new title must find in order to reach a wider audience.<ref>See titles like David Cole, ''The Complete Guide to Book Marketing'' 2nd edition (Allworth Communications, Inc., 2004) and Alison Baverstock, ''How to Market Books: The Essential Guide to Maximizing Profit and Exploiting All Channels to Market'', 4th edition (Kogan Page Publishers, 2008).</ref>
===Asian precursors===
Early important Asian precursors to the novel include:
*[[Vishnu Sarma]], ''[[Panchatantra]]'' ([[Sanskrit]], 3rd century BC)
*''[[Baital Pachisi|Vikram and the Vampire]]'' ([[Sanskrit]], 1st century BC)
*''[[Hitopadesha]]'' ([[Sanskrit]], 1st–2nd century AD)
*[[Sri Dandin]], ''[[The Adventures of the Ten Princes]]'' ([[Sanskrit]], 6th–7th century)
*[[Banabhatta]], ''[[Kadambari]]'' ([[Sanskrit]], 7th century)
*[[Ferdowsi]], ''[[Shahnameh]]'' ([[Persian language|Persian]], 10th century)
*''[[The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter]]'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]], 10th century)
 
Different levels of communication mark successful modern novels as a result of the genre's present position in (or outside) literary debates. An elite exchange has developed between novelists and literary theorists, allowing for direct interactions between authors and critics. Authors who write literary criticism can eventually modify the very criteria under which theorists discuss their works. Literary recognition can also be gained when novels influence thinking about non-literary controversies. A third option remains with novels that find their audiences without the help of critical debate. Even serious novels can become the object of direct marketing strategies along the lines publishers usually reserve for "popular fiction".
===۱۱مه پېړۍ===
*[[Murasaki Shikibu]], ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]], 11th century), arguably the first true novel, in the sense of a continued fictional narrative written by one author
 
===۱۳مه=Writing پېړۍliterary theory====
Many of the techniques the novel developed over the past 100 years can be understood as the result of competition with the new 20th- (and 21st-) century mass media: film, comics and the World Wide Web shaped the novel. [[Shot (filmmaking)|Shot]] and [[sequence (filmmaking)|sequence]], [[focus]] and [[perspective]] have moved from [[film editing]] to literary composition. Experimental 20th-century fiction is, at the same time, influenced by [[literary theory]].
*[[Ramon Llull]], ''[[Blanquerna]]'' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]], 1283)
 
Literary theory, arising in the 20th century, questioned key factors that had been matters of agreement in 19th-century literary criticism: the author wrote the text, he was influenced by his period, by an intellectual climate the nation provided and by his personality. The work of art eventually reflected all these aspects, and literary critics recreated them. The ensuing debate identified a canon of the truly great works brought forth by each nation.
===۱۴مه پېړۍ===
*[[Luo Guanzhong]], ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[1330]])
*[[Giovanni Boccaccio]], ''[[Decameron]]'' ([[Italian language|Italian]], [[1353]])
*[[Geoffrey Chaucer]], ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'' ([[English language|English]], 1386-1400)
 
20th-century literary theory challenged all these notions. It moved along with what philosophers called the [[linguistic turn]]: the artifact to be read was primarily a text. The text unfolded a meaning in the reading process. The question was, what made the literary text so special? Its complexity: a simple answer that immediately called for a complex science to describe and to understand these complexities. The literary theorists argued that the literary criticism of the 19th century had not truly seen the text. It had concentrated on the author, his or her period, the culture that surrounded him or her, his or her psyche &ndash; factors outside the text, that had allegedly shaped it. Strict theorists argued that even the author, hitherto considered the central figure, whose message one wanted to understand, did not even have privileged access to the meaning and significance of his or her own work. Once the text was written it began to unfold associations, no matter whether one was its author or another reader. The theory debate stepped forth in redefinitions of its project: [[Formalism]] (1900-1920), [[New Criticism]] (1920-1965), [[Structuralism]] (1950-1980) and [[Poststructuralism]] (late 1960s through 1990s) became the major schools. The modes of analysis changed with each of these schools. All assumed that the text had its own meaning, independent of all authorial intentions and period backgrounds. If a [[Infinite monkey theorem|monkey were to use a typewriter]] without any understanding of his actions, he would sooner or later produce a [[Shakespeare]]an sonnet among his random texts, a text whose beauty and meaning we would be able to appreciate. Each of these schools proposed a criticism that directed its attention to an understanding of this inherent meaning.
===۱۵مه پېړۍ===
*[[Antoine de la Sale]], ''[[Petit Jehan de Saintré]]'' ([[French language|French]], [[1456]])
*[[Thomas Malory]], ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'' ([[English language|English]], [[1485]])
*[[Joanot Martorell]], ''[[Tirant lo Blanc]]'' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]], 1490), a chivalric romance
*[[Shi Nai'an]] and [[Luo Guanzhong]], ''[[Water Margin]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], 15th century)
 
[[Image:ulyssesCover.jpg|upright|thumb|[[James Joyce]], ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' (1922)]]
===۱۶مه پېړۍ===
[[James Joyce]]'s ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' (1922) became the central text that explored the potential of the new theoretical options. The 19th-century narrator left the stage; what remained was a text one could read as a reflex of thoughts. The "[[stream of consciousness (narrative mode)|stream of consciousness]]"<ref>The term was first used by [[William James]] in 1890 and entered the terminology of literary criticism with the discussions of [[Virginia Woolf|Woolf]] and Joyce, as well as [[William Faulkner|Faulkner]]. See Erwin R. Steinberg (ed.) ''The Stream-of-consciousness technique in the modern novel'' (Port Washington, N.Y: Kennikat Press, 1979). On the extra-European usage of the technique see also: Elly Hagenaar/ Eide, Elisabeth, "Stream of consciousness and free indirect discourse in modern Chinese literature", ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', 56 (1993), p.621 and P. M. Nayak (ed.), ''The voyage inward: stream of consciousness in Indian English fiction'' (New Delhi: Bahri Publications, 1999).</ref> replaced the authorial voice. The characters endowed with these new voices had no firm ground from which to narrate. Their audiences had to re-create what was purposefully broken. One of the aims was to represent the reality of thoughts, sensations and conflicting perspectives. [[William Faulkner]] was particularly concerned with recreating real life, an undertaking which he said was unattainable. Once the classical authorial voice was gone, the classical composition of the text could be questioned: ''Ulysses'' did that. The argumentative structure with which a narration used to make its points lost its importance. Each sentence connected to sentences readers recalled. Words reverberated in a worldwide circulation of texts and language. Critics would understand more of the possible allusions and supply them in footnotes.
*[[Jacopo Sannazaro]], ''[[La Arcadia]]'' ([[Italian language|Italian]], 1504), a pastoral novel
*[[Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo]], ''[[Amadis de Gaula]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] adaptation of lost 13th century original, 1508)
*[[Thomas More]], ''[[Utopia (book)|Utopia]]'' ([[Latin]], [[1516]])
*[[François Rabelais]], ''[[Gargantua and Pantagruel]]'' ([[French language|French]], [[1532]])
*[[Jorge de Montemayor]], ''[[La Diana]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], 1559), a pastoral novel
*''[[Lazarillo de Tormes]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[1554]])
*[[Wu Cheng'en]], ''[[Journey to the West]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[1590]])
*[[Thomas Nashe]], ''[[The Unfortunate Traveller]]'' (1594)
*[[Mateo Alemán]], ''[[Guzmán de Alfarache]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], 1599)
 
[[Virginia Woolf]]'s ''[[Mrs. Dalloway]]'' (1925), [[Samuel Beckett]]'s trilogy ''[[Molloy (novel)|Molloy]]'' (1951), ''[[Malone Dies]]'' (1951) and ''[[The Unnamable (novel)|The Unnamable]]'' (1953), [[Julio Cortázar]]'s ''[[Hopscotch (Julio Cortázar novel)|Rayuela]]'' (1963) and [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s ''[[Gravity's Rainbow]]'' (1973) all explore this new narrative technique. [[Alfred Döblin]] went in a slightly different direction with his ''[[Berlin Alexanderplatz]]'' (1929), where interspersed non-fictional text fragments enter the fictional sphere to create a new form of realism.
===۱۷مه پېړۍ===
*[[Miguel de Cervantes]], ''[[Don Quixote|Don Quixote de la Mancha]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[1605]])
*[[Honoré d'Urfé]], ''[[Astrée]]'' ([[French language|French]], [[1607]])
*[[Francisco de Quevedo]], ''[[El Buscón]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], 1626), the masterpiece of the picaresque sub-genre
*[[Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen]], ''[[Simplicissimus]]'' ([[German language|German]], 1668–1669), the [[Thirty Years' War]] put into satirical autobiography
*[[Madame de La Fayette]], ''[[La Princesse de Clèves]]'' ([[French language|French]], [[1678]])
*[[Aphra Behn]], [[Love-Letters Between a Noble-Man and his Sister (1684)]] ([[England|English]], 1684–1687), the first full-blown epistolary novel
*[[Aphra Behn]], ''[[Oroonoko]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1688]])
*[[Cao Xueqin]], ''[[Dream of the Red Chamber]]'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], 18th century)
 
Authors of the 1960s–[[Robert Coover]] is an example–fragmented their stories and challenged time and sequentiality as fundamental structuring concepts.
===۱۸مه پېړۍ===
*[[Eliza Haywood]], ''[[Love in Excess]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1719]])
*[[Daniel Defoe]], ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1719]])
*[[Jonathan Swift]], ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' ([[Ireland|Irish]], 1726, amended 1735)
*[[Antoine François Prévost]], ''[[Manon Lescaut]]'' ([[France|French]], [[1732]])
*[[Samuel Richardson]], ''[[Clarissa]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1740]])
*[[Henry Fielding]], ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1749]])
*[[John Cleland]], ''[[Fanny Hill|Fanny Hill, Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1749]])
*[[Voltaire]], ''[[Candide]]'' ([[France|French]], [[1759]])
*[[Laurence Sterne]], ''[[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman|Tristram Shandy]]'' ([[Ireland|Irish]], [[1759]]–[[1767]])
*[[Tobias Smollett]], ''[[The Expedition of Humphry Clinker]]'' ([[Scotland|Scottish]], [[1771]])
*[[Ignacy Krasicki]], ''[[The Adventures of Nicholas Experience]]'' (the first [[Poland|Polish]] novel, 1776)
*[[Frances Burney]], ''[[Evelina]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1778]])
*[[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos]], ''[[Les Liaisons Dangereuses]]'' ([[France|French]], [[1782]])
*[[Ann Radcliffe]], ''[[The Mysteries of Udolpho]]'' ([[England|English]], 1794)
<!-- should we mention The Sufferings of Young Werther, New Heloise, and de Sade's Justine? -->
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===۱۹مه پېړۍ===
*[[Jane Austen]], ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1813]])
*[[Aleksandr Pushkin]], ''[[Eugene Onegin]]'' ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[1825]]–[[1831]])
*[[Stendhal]], ''[[The Red and the Black]]'' ([[French language|French]], [[1831]])
*[[Honoré de Balzac]], ''[[Le Père Goriot|Père Goriot]]'' ([[French language|French]], [[1835]])
*[[Alexandre Herculano]], ''[[A Voz do Profeta]]'' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[1836]])
*[[Stendhal]], ''[[The Charterhouse of Parma]]'' ([[French language|French]], [[1839]])
*[[Mikhail Lermontov]], ''[[A Hero of Our Time]]'' ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[1839]])
*[[Alessandro Manzoni]], ''[[The Betrothed]]'' ([[Italian language|Italian]], [[1840]])
*[[Emily Brontë]], ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1847]])
*[[Charlotte Brontë]], ''[[Jane Eyre]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1847]])
*[[Herman Melville]], ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' ([[United States|American]], [[1851]])
*[[Anthony Trollope]], ''[[Barchester Towers]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1857]])
*[[Gustave Flaubert]], ''[[Madame Bovary]]'' ([[French language|French]], [[1857]])
*[[Ivan Goncharov]], ''[[Oblomov]]'' ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[1859]])
*[[Charles Dickens]], ''[[David Copperfield]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1860]]–[[1861]])
*[[Ivan Turgenev]], ''[[Fathers and Sons]]'' ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[1861]])
*[[Victor Hugo]], ''[[Les Misérables]]'' ([[French language|French]], [[1862]])
*[[Leo Tolstoy]], ''[[War and Peace]]'' ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[1865]])
*[[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]], ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[1866]])
*[[George Eliot]], ''[[Middlemarch]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1871]])
*[[Leo Tolstoy]], ''[[Anna Karenina]]'' ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[1875]]–[[1877]])
*[[Józef Ignacy Kraszewski]], ''[[An Ancient Tale]]'' ([[Polish language|Polish]], [[1876]])
*[[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]], ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[1880]])
*[[Mark Twain]], ''[[The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'' ([[United States|American]], [[1885]])
*[[Benito Pérez Galdós]], ''[[Fortunata y Jacinta]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[1886]]–[[1887]])
*[[Wilhelm Raabe]], ''[[Stopfkuchen]]'' ([[German language|German]], [[1891]])
*[[Henryk Sienkiewicz]], ''[[Quo Vadis (novel)|Quo Vadis]]'' ([[Polish language|Polish]], [[1895]])
*[[Bolesław Prus]], ''[[Faraon|Pharaoh]]'' ([[Polish language|Polish]], [[1895]])
*[[Joseph Conrad]], ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'' ([[England|English]], [[1897]])
*[[Theodor Fontane]], ''[[Der Stechlin]]'' ([[German language|German]], [[1899]])
*[[Eça de Queiroz]], ''[[Os Maias]]'' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese|]], 1889)
 
[[Postmodernism|Postmodern]] authors<ref>See for a first survey [[Brian McHale]], ''Postmodernist Fiction'' (Routledge, 1987) and John Docker, ''Postmodernism and popular culture: a cultural history'' (Cambridge University Press, 1994).</ref> subverted the serious debate with playfulness. The new theorists' claim that art could never be original, that it always played with existing materials, that language basically recalled itself had been an accepted truth in the world of [[trivial literature]]. A postmodernist could reread trivial literature as the essential cultural production. The creative avant-garde of the 1960s and 1970s "closed the gap"<ref>See [[Leslie Fiedler]]'s "Cross the border, close the gap!" ''[[Playboy]]'' (December 1969).</ref> and recycled popular knowledge, conspiracy theories, comics and films to recombine these materials in what was to become art of entirely new qualities. [[Roland Barthes]]' 1950s analysis of popular culture,<ref>Roland Barthes, ''Mythologies'' [1957] (New York: Hill & Wang, 1987).</ref> his late 1960s claim that the author was dead whilst the text continued to live,<ref>Roland Barthes "[[Death of the Author|The Death of the Author]]" [1969] in ''Image, Music, Text'' (London: Fontana, 1977).</ref> became standards of postmodern theory. Novels from [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s ''[[The Crying of Lot 49]]'' (1966), to [[Umberto Eco]]'s ''[[The Name of the Rose]]'' (1980) and ''[[Foucault's Pendulum]]'' (1989) opened themselves to a universe of [[intertextuality|intertextual]] references<ref>See Gérard Genette, ''Palimpsests'', trans. Channa Newman & Claude Doubinsky (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press) and Graham Allan, ''Intertextuality'' (London/New York: Routledge, 2000).</ref> while they thematized their own constructedness in a new postmodern [[metafictional]] awareness.<ref>See [[Linda Hutcheon]], ''Narcissistic Narrative. The Metafictional Paradox'' (London: Routledge, 1984) and Patricia Waugh, ''Metafiction. The Theory and Practice of Self-conscious Fiction'' (London: Routledge 1988).</ref>
===20th century===
*[[Władysław Reymont]], ''[[The Peasants]]'' ([[Polish language|Polish]], 1902–1909)
*[[Marcel Proust]], ''[[In Search of Lost Time]]'' ([[French language|French]], 1913–1927)
*[[James Joyce]], ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' ([[Hiberno-English|Irish]], 1922)
*[[Thomas Mann]], ''[[The Magic Mountain]]'' ([[German language|German]], 1924)
*[[F. Scott Fitzgerald]], ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' ([[United States|American]], 1925)
*[[Franz Kafka]], ''[[The Trial]]'' ([[German language|German]], 1925)
*[[Virginia Woolf]], ''[[To the Lighthouse]]'' ([[England|English]], 1927)
*[[Robert Musil]], ''[[The Man Without Qualities]]'' ([[German language|Austrian]], 1930–1942)
*[[William Faulkner]], ''[[As I Lay Dying]]'' ([[United States|American]], 1930)
*[[Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz]], ''[[Insatiability]]'' ([[Polish language|Polish]], 1930)
*[[Tadeusz Dołęga-Mostowicz]], ''[[The Career of Nicodemus Dyzma]]'' ([[Polish language|Polish]], 1932)
*[[Witold Gombrowicz]], ''[[Ferdydurke]]'' ([[Polish language|Polish]], 1937)
*[[Betty Smith]], ''[[A Tree Grows In Brooklyn]]'' ([[United States|American]], 1943)
*[[Vaikom Muhammad Basheer]], ''[[Baalyakaalasakhi]]'' ([[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], 1944)
*[[Vladimir Nabokov]], ''[[Lolita]]'' ([[United States|American]], 1955)
*[[Jack Kerouac]], ''[[On The Road]]'' ([[United States|American]], 1957)
*[[Joseph Heller]], ''[[Catch-22]]'' ([[United States|American]], 1961)
 
What separated these authors from 18th- and 19th-century predecessors who had invited other textual worlds into their own compositions, was the interaction the new authors sought with the field of literary criticism. 20th-century metafictional works expect literary historians to deal with them; literary critics and theorists become the privileged first readers that the new texts need in order to unfold. James Joyce is said to have said this about the reception he designed for his ''Ulysses'' (1922): "I've put in so many enigmas and puzzles that it will keep the professors busy for centuries arguing over what I meant, and that's the only way of insuring one's immortality."<ref>The statement was allegedly made by Joyce in October 1921, recalled by [[Jacques Benoist-Méchin]] in 1956 before it became a standard with [[Richard Ellman]]'s biography, ''James Joyce'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982) p.521.</ref> &ndash; a statement to which [[Salman Rushdie]] referred in 1999, according to Paul Brians's ''Notes for Satanic Verses'':
The twentieth century also saw the emergence of many notable novelists of non-European and non-U.S. backgrounds. The years 1960–1967, in particular, witnessed the [[Latin America novel boom]]:
*[[Carlos Fuentes]], ''[[The Death of Artemio Cruz]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], 1962)
*[[Mario Vargas Llosa]], ''[[The Time of the Hero]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], 1963)
*[[Gabriel García Márquez]], ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], 1967)
*[[Isabel Allende]], ''[[The House of the Spirits]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], 1982)
 
<blockquote>
The most notable [[African American]] novelists have included:
Asked about the possibility of "[[Cliff's Notes]]" to his writings, Rushdie answered that although he didn't expect readers to get all the allusions in his works, he didn't think such notes would detract from the reading of them: "James Joyce once said after he had published ''Ulysses'' that he had given the professors work for many years to come; and I'm always looking for ways of employing professors, so I hope to have given them some work too."<ref>Paul Brians in his ''Notes for Salman Rushdie,''The Satanic Verses '' (1988)'' ([http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/anglophone/satanic_verses/svnotes.pdf Version February 13, 2004]), p.5.]</ref>
*[[Zora Neale Hurston]], ''[[Their Eyes Were Watching God]]'' (1937)
</blockquote>
*[[Richard Wright]], ''[[Native Son]]'' (1940)
*[[Ralph Ellison]], ''[[Invisible Man]]'' (1952)
*[[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], ''[[Go Tell It on the Mountain]]'' (1953)
*[[Toni Morrison]], ''[[Beloved (novel)|Beloved]]'' (1987)
 
Novelists such as [[John Barth]], [[Raymond Federman]] and [[Umberto Eco]] crossed the borders into criticism. Mixed forms of criticism and fiction appeared: "critifiction", a term Raymond Federman attempted to coin in 1993.<ref>Raymond Federman, ''Critifiction: Postmodern Essays'', (Suny Press, 1993).</ref>
[[Modernism]] continued into the late twentieth century, sometimes becoming [[postmodernism]] (Toni Morrison [above] is part of that tradition):
*[[William Gaddis]], ''[[The Recognitions]]'' (1955)
*[[John Barth]], ''[[The Sot-Weed Factor]]'' (1960)
*[[Thomas Pynchon]], ''[[Gravity's Rainbow]]'' (1973)
*[[Salman Rushdie]], ''[[Midnight's Children]]'' (1980)
*[[Don DeLillo]], ''[[White Noise (novel)|White Noise]]'' (1985)
*[[David Foster Wallace]], ''[[Infinite Jest]]'' (1997)
 
Whilst the postmodern movement has been criticized at times as theoretical if not escapist, it successfully unfolded in several films of the 1990s and 2000s: ''[[Pulp Fiction (film)|Pulp Fiction]]'' (1994), ''[[Memento]]'' (2000), and ''[[The Matrix]]'' (1999-2003) can be read as new textual constructs designed to prove that we are surrounded by virtual realities, by realities we construct out of circulating fragments, of images, concept, a language of cultural materials the new filmmakers explore.
Other novelists ignored or reacted against [[modernism]]:
*[[John Updike]], the ''Rabbit'' tetralogy (1959–1990) -->
 
===Genre=Writing novelsworld history====
{| style="float:right;"
From the late Victorian period to the present, several types of "genre" novels and romances have been popular. While often slighted by critics and academics, these have been as popular as the more critically and academically acclaimed novels; in recent times, the best of them have been recognized as serious literature. Some categories of [[genre fiction]] are:
|-
*[[Science fiction]]
|valign="top"|
*[[Fantasy]]
[[File:VirginiaWoolf.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Virginia Woolf]], 1902]]<br />
[[File:Evstafiev-solzhenitsyn.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], Vladivostok, 1995]]<br />
[[File:Chinua Achebe - Buffalo 25Sep2008.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Chinua Achebe]], Buffalo, 2008]]<br />
[[File:2008.06.09. Michel Houellebecq Fot Mariusz Kubik 11.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Michel Houellebecq]], Warsaw, 2008]]<br />
[[File:Elfriede jelinek 2004 small.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Elfriede Jelinek]], Munich, 2004]]<br />
|valign="top"|
[[File:JoyceCarolOates.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Joyce Carol Oates]], 2006]]<br />
[[File:Doris lessing 20060312.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Doris Lessing]], Cologne, 2006]]<br />
[[File:Paul Auster, Salman Rushdie and Shimon Peres.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Paul Auster]], [[Salman Rushdie]] and [[Shimon Peres]], New York City, 2008]]<br />
[[File:Oe kenzaburo japaninstitut koeln 041108.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kenzaburō Ōe]], Cologne, 2008]]
[[File:Henning Mankell lecturing at Parkteateret.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Henning Mankell]], Oslo, 2007]]<br />
|}
On the one hand, media and institutions of criticism enable the modern novel to become the object of global debate. On the other hand, novels themselves, individual books, continue to arouse attention with unique personal and subjective narratives that challenge all circulating views of world history. Novels remain personal. Their authors remain independent individuals even where they become public figures, in contrast to historians and journalists who tend, by contrast, to assume official positions. The narrative style remains free and artistic, whereas modern history has by contrast almost entirely abandoned narration and turned to the critical debate of interpretations. Novels are seen as part of the realm of "art", defended as a realm of free and subjective self-expression. Crossovers into other genres &ndash; the novel as film, the film as novel, the amalgam of the novel and the [[comic book]] that led to the evolution of the [[graphic novel]] &ndash; have strengthened the genre's influence on the collective imagination and the arena of ongoing debates.
 
Personal realities have attracted 20th- and 21st-century novelists: first in an explicit reaction to the new science of [[psychology]], later, far more importantly, in a renewed interest in subject matter that almost automatically destabilizes and marginalizes the realities of "common sense" and collective history. Personal anxieties, daydreams, magic and hallucinatory experiences mushroomed in 20th-century novels. What would be a clinical [[psychosis]] if stated as a personal experience &ndash; in one extreme example, Gregor Samsa, the point of view character of [[Franz Kafka|Kafka's]] ''[[The Metamorphosis]]'', awakes to find that he has become a giant cockroach &ndash; will, as soon as it is transformed into a novel, become the object of competing literary interpretations, a metaphor, an image of the modern experience of personal instability and isolation. The term "[[Kafkaesque]]" has joined the term "[[Orwellian]]" in common parlance to refer not only to aspects of literature, but of the world.
 
Each generation of the 20th century saw its unique aspects expressed in novels. Germany's [[lost generation]] of [[World War I]] veterans identified with the hero of [[Erich Maria Remarque]]'s ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]'' (1928) (and with the tougher, more [[existentialism|existentialist]] rival [[Thor Goote]] created as a [[Nazism|national socialist]] alternative). The [[Jazz Age]] found a voice in [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]], the [[Great Depression]] and the incipient [[Cold War]] in [[George Orwell]]. France's existentialism was prominently voiced in [[Jean Paul Sartre]]'s ''[[Nausea (novel)|Nausea]]'' (1938) and [[Albert Camus]]' ''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'' (1942). The [[counterculture of the 1960s]] gave [[Hermann Hesse]]'s ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'' (1927) a new reception, while producing such iconic works of its own as [[Ken Kesey]]'s ''[[One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (novel)|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]'' and [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s ''[[Gravity's Rainbow]]''. [[Chuck Palahniuk]]'s ''[[Fight Club]]'' (1996) became (with the help of the film adaptation) an icon of late 20th-century manhood and a reaction to the 20th-century production of female voices. [[Virginia Woolf]], [[Simone de Beauvoir]], [[Doris Lessing]], [[Elfriede Jelinek]] became prominent female and feminist voices. Questions of racial and [[gender identity|gender identities]], the option to reclaim female heroines of a predominantly male cultural industry<ref>See, for example, Susan Hopkins, ''Girl Heroes: The New Force In Popular Culture'' (Annandale NSW:, 2002).</ref> have fascinated novelists over the last two decades with their potential to destabilize the preceding confrontations.
 
The major 20th-century social processes can be traced through the modern novel: the history of the [[sexual revolution]]<ref>See: Charles Irving Glicksberg, ''The Sexual Revolution in Modern American Literature'' (Nijhoff, 1971) and his ''The Sexual Revolution in Modern English Literature'' (Martinus Nijhoff, 1973). On recent trends: Elizabeth Benedict, ''The Joy of Writing Sex: A Guide for Fiction Writers'' (Macmillan, 2002). Very interesting with its focus on trivial literature written for the female audience: Carol Thurston, ''The Romance Revolution: Erotic Novels for Women and the Quest for a New Sexual Identity'' (University of Illinois Press, 1987).</ref> can be traced through the reception of sexually frank novels: [[D. H. Lawrence]]'s ''[[Lady Chatterley's Lover]]'' had to be published in Italy in 1928; British censorship lifted its ban as late as 1960. [[Henry Miller]]'s ''[[Tropic of Cancer]]'' (1934) created the comparable US scandal. Transgressive fiction from [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s ''[[Lolita]]'' (1955) to [[Michel Houellebecq]]'s ''[[Les Particules élémentaires]]'' (1998) entered a literary field that eventually opened itself to the production of frankly pornographic works such as [[Anne Desclos]]' ''[[Story of O]]'' (1954) to [[Anaïs Nin]]'s ''[[Delta of Venus]]'' (1978).
 
[[Crime fiction|Crime]] became a major subject of 20th- and 21st-century novelists. The extreme confrontations of crime fiction reach into the very realities that modern industrialized, organized societies try and fail to eradicate. Crime is also an intriguing personal and public subject: criminals each have their personal motivations and actions. Detectives, too, see their moral codes challenged. [[Patricia Highsmith]]'s [[psychological thriller|thrillers]] became a medium of new psychological explorations. [[Paul Auster]]'s ''[[The New York Trilogy|New York Trilogy]]'' (1985-1986) crossed the borders into the field of experimental postmodernist literature.
 
The major political and military confrontations of the 20th and 21st centuries have inspired novelists. The events of [[World War II]] found their reflections in novels from [[Günter Grass]]' ''[[The Tin Drum]]'' (1959) to [[Joseph Heller]]'s ''[[Catch-22]]'' (1961). The ensuing cold war lives on in a bulk of [[spy fiction|spy novels]] that reach out into the realm of popular fiction. Latin American self awareness in the wake of the (failing) left revolutions of the 1960s and 1970s resulted in a "[[Latin American Boom]]", connected today with the names of [[Julio Cortázar]], [[Mario Vargas Llosa]] and [[Gabriel García Márquez]] and the invention of a special brand of postmodern [[magic realism]]. The unstable status of Israel and the Middle East have become the subject of Israeli and Arab perceptions. Contemporary fiction has explored the realities of the post-Soviet nations and those of post-[[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Tiananmen]] China. Arguably, though, international perceptions of these events have been shaped more by images than words. The wave of modern media images has, in turn, merged with the novel in the form of [[graphic novels]] that both exploit and question the status of circulating visual materials. [[Art Spiegelman]]'s two-volume ''[[Maus]]'' and, perhaps more important in its new theoretical approach, his ''[[In the Shadow of No Towers]]'' (2004) &ndash; a graphic novel questioning the reality of the images the [[9/11]] attacks have produced &ndash; are interesting artefacts here.
 
The extreme options of writing alternative histories have created genres of their own. [[Fantasy]] has become a field of commercial fiction branching into the worlds of computer-animated role play and esoteric myth. Its center today is [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' (1954/55), a work that mutated from a book written for young readers in search of openly fictionalised role models into a cultural artefact of epic dimensions. Tolkien successfully revived northern European epic literature from [[Beowulf]] and the North Germanic [[Edda]] to the [[King Arthur|Arthurian Cycles]] and turned their incompatible worlds into an epic of global confrontations that magically preceded all known confrontations.
 
[[Science fiction]] has developed a broad variety of genres from the technological adventure [[Jules Verne]] had made fashionable in the 1860s to new political and personal compositions. [[Aldous Huxley]]'s ''[[Brave New World]]'' (1932) has become a touchpoint for debate of Western consumerist societies and their use of modern technologies. [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[1984 (novel)|1984]]'' (1949) focuses on the options of resistance under the eyes of public surveillance. [[Stanisław Lem]], [[Isaac Asimov]] and [[Arthur C. Clarke]] became modern classical authors of experimental thought with a focus on the interaction between men and machines. A new wave of authors has added post-apocalyptic fantasies and explorations of [[virtual]] realities in crossovers into the commercial production of quickly mutating sci-fi genres. [[William Gibson]]'s ''[[Neuromancer]]'' (1984) became a cult classic here and founded a new brand of [[cyberpunk]] science fiction.
 
====Writing for the market of popular fiction====
{| style="float:right;"
|-
|[[File:2009 Bestseller im Supermarktregal.JPG|right|thumb|[[Bestseller]]s to be bought in a German supermarket, 2009]]<br />
[[File:2009 Deutschsprachige Trivialliteratur im Zeitungsgeschaeft.JPG|right|thumb|[[Pulp magazine]]s in a German newspaper shop, 2009]]
|}
The contemporary market for [[trivial literature]] and popular fiction is connected to the market of "high" literature through the numerous [[genre]]s that both fields share.
 
The historic advantage of genres is to allow the direct marketing of fiction. Whilst the reader of "high" literature will follow public discussions of novels, the low production has to employ the traditionally more direct and short-term marketing strategies of open declarations of their content. Genres fill the gap the critic leaves and work as direct promises of a foreseeable reading pleasure. The very lowest stratum of trivial fiction is based entirely on genre expectations, which it fixes with serializations and identifiable brand names. Ghost writers hide behind collective pseudonyms to ensure the steady supply of fictions that will have the very same hero, the very same story arc, and the very same number of pages, issue after issue.
 
Though a production not promoted by secondary criticism it is trivial literature that holds the big market share. Romance fiction had an estimated $1.375 billion share in estimated revenue of the US book market in 2007. Religion/inspirational followed with $819 million, science fiction/fantasy with $700 million, mystery with $650 million and classic literary fiction with $466 million according to data supplied by the ''[[Romance Writers of America]]'' homepage.<ref>See the page [http://www.rwanational.org/cs/the_romance_genre/romance_literature_statistics Romance Literature Statistics: Overview] (visited March 16, 2009) of ''[http://www.rwanational.org/cs/home Romance Writers of America]'' homepage. The subpages offer further statistics for the years since 1998.</ref>
 
The most important subgenres were in this period, according to ''Romance Writers of America'' data given on the basis of numbers of releases:
* [[Romance novel#Category romance|Contemporary series romance]]: 25.7%
* [[Contemporary romance]]: 21.8%
* [[Historical romance]]: 16%
* [[Paranormal romance]]: 11.8%
* [[Romance novel#Romantic suspense|Romantic suspense]]: 7.2%
* [[Inspirational fiction|Inspirational romance]]: 7.1%
* Romantic suspense (series): 4.7%
* Other ([[chick-lit]], [[erotic romance novels|erotic romance]], [[women's fiction]]): 2.9%
* [[Young Adult Romance Literature|Young adult romance]]: 2.8%
 
In a historical perspective one could be tempted to see modern trivial literature as the successor of the early modern chapbook. Both fields share a focus on readers in search of accessible reading satisfaction. Early modern booksellers stated a reduced vocabulary and a focus on plots as the advantages of the abridgements they sold. The market of chapbooks disappeared, however, in the course of the 19th century.<ref>The German rediscovery of [[chapbooks]] in the 1840s and their new identification as an extinct though truly original production of "[[:de:Volksbuch|Volksbücher]]", books the people had brought forth, is symptomatic here. See ''Karl Joseph Simrock's'' edition ''Sammlung deutscher Volksbücher'', 13 vols. (Frankfurt, 1845-67) and Jan Dirk Müller (ed.) in his ''Romane des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts'', vol. 1 (Frankfurt a. M., 1990).</ref> The modern trivial production had by that time developed out of the once so elegant &ndash; early modern [[belles lettres]].<ref>John J. Richetti was the first to point out the various similarities within the spectrum of genres. See his ''Popular Fiction before Richardson. Narrative Patterns 1700-1739'' (Oxford: OUP, 1969).</ref>
 
The 20th-century love romance is a successor of the novels [[Madeleine de Scudéry]], [[Madame de La Fayette|Marie de La Fayette]], [[Aphra Behn]], and [[Eliza Haywood]] wrote from the 1640s into the 1740s. The modern [[adventure novel]] goes back to [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' (1719) and its immediate successors. Modern [[pornography]] has no precedent in the chapbook market; it goes back, again, to the libertine and hedonistic belles lettres, to [[John Cleland]]s ''[[Fanny Hill]]'' (1749) and its companions of the elegant 18th-century market. [[Ian Fleming]]'s ''[[James Bond]]'' is a descendant of the anonymous yet extremely sophisticated and stylish narrator who mixed his love affairs with his political missions in ''La Guerre d'Espagne'' (1707). [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[The Mists of Avalon]]'' exploits Tolkien, as well as Arthurian literature and its romantic 19th-century reflections. Modern [[horror fiction]] also has no precedent on the market of chapbooks &ndash; it goes back into the high market of early 19th-century romantic literature. Modern popular science fiction has an even shorter history, hardly dating past the 1860s.
 
[[File:Dan Brown - bookjacket.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dan Brown]] on the book jacket of one of his novels]]
The modern trivial production can be said to be the result of the 19th-century constitution of "high literature". Where "high literature" rose under the critical debates of literature, the production that failed to receive the same critical attention had to survive on the existing markets.
 
The emerging field of popular fiction immediately created its own stratifications with a production of bestselling authors such as [[Raymond Chandler]], [[Barbara Cartland]], Ian Fleming, [[Johannes Mario Simmel]], [[Rosamunde Pilcher]], [[Stephen King]], [[Ken Follett]], [[Patricia Cornwell]], and [[Dan Brown]] who enjoy the potential to attract fans and who appear as role models in author-fan relationships. The lowest market segment does not develop any mythologies of authorship. It hardly differentiates between hero and author: one buys the new [[Perry Rhodan]], [[Captain Future]], or [[Jerry Cotton]].
 
Trivial literature has been accused of promoting [[escapism]] and [[reactionary]] politics. It is supposedly designed to reinforce present divisions of [[social class|class]], [[power (philosophy)|power]] and [[gender]]. Nonetheless, popular fiction has dealt with almost any topic the modern public sphere has provided. Class and gender divisions are omnipresent in love stories: the majority of them harp on tragic confrontations that arise wherever a heroine of lower social status falls in love with a doctor, the wealthy heir of an estate or company, or just the Alpine farmer whose maid she happens to be. It is not said that these aspirations lead to happy endings. They can be read as escapist dreams of how one could change ones social status by marriage; they are at the same time constant indicators of existing or imaginary social barriers. All major political confrontations of the past one hundred years have become the scenery of trivial exploits, whether they focused on soldiers, spies or on civilians fighting between the lines. [[Conspiracy fiction|Conspiracy theories]] have mushroomed under the covers of trivial fictions from [[Robert Ludlum]]'s ''[[The Bourne Identity (novel)|The Bourne Identity]]'' (1980) to [[Dan Brown]]'s ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'' (2003): they mirror a widespread feeling that the electorate of the Western democracies receive at best an illusion of freedom, an omnipresent picture presented in the media, whilst those who pull the strings hide in the dark.<ref>See Timothy Melley, ''Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America'' (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000).</ref>
 
The authors of trivial fictions–and that is the essential functional difference between them and their counterparts in the sphere of "high" literature–tend to proclaim that they have simply exploited the controversial topics. Dan Brown does this on his website answering the question whether his ''Da Vinci Code'' could be called an "anti-Christian" novel:
<blockquote>
No. This book is not anti-anything. It's a novel. I wrote this story in an effort to explore certain aspects of Christian history that interest me. The vast majority of devout Christians understand this fact and consider ''The Da Vinci Code'' an entertaining story that promotes spiritual discussion and debate. Even so, a small but vocal group of individuals has proclaimed the story dangerous, heretical, and anti-Christian. While I regret having offended those individuals, I should mention that priests, nuns, and clergy contact me all the time to thank me for writing the novel. Many church officials are celebrating ''The Da Vinci Code'' because it has sparked renewed interest in important topics of faith and Christian history. It is important to remember that a reader does not have to agree with every word in the novel to use the book as a positive catalyst for introspection and exploration of our faith<ref>Dan Brown on his [http://www.danbrown.com/novels/davinci_code/faqs.html website] visited February 3, 2009.</ref>
</blockquote>
 
The author of popular fictions has a fan community to serve and satisfy. He or she can risk rebuffing both the critical public and its literary experts in their search for interesting readings (as Dan Brown effectively does with his statement on possible readings of his novel). The trivial author's position towards his text is generally supposed to be relaxed. Authors of great literature are by contrast supposed to be compelled to write. They follow (says the popular mythology) their inner voices, a feeling for injustice, an urge to face a personal trauma, an artistic vision. The authors of trivial fictions have their own call: they must not fail the expectations of their audiences. A covenant of loyalty and mutual respect is the basis on which the author of popular fictions continues his or her work. The lower branches of the production have no contact to mythologies of authorship.
 
The boundaries between the so-called high and low have blurred in recent years through the explorations of postmodern and poststructuralist critics and through the exploitation of trivial works by the film industry. The present landscape of media &ndash; with television and the Internet indiscriminately reaching the entire audience &ndash; has a potential to destabilize boundaries between the fields. The division lines are, on the other hand, likely to stay intact as the critical discourse continues to need and to produce privileged objects of debate.
 
==The novel outside the West==
{{Expand section}}
Although the novel arose as a Western European form of literature (in attendance with the development of modern European notions of realism), the increase in globalized interactions between cultures has introduced the novel as a genre into many non-Western cultures. These interactions include the presence of Europeans in Africa, Asia and the Americas due to colonial practices or (more recently) to globalized business practices, in which Westerners import and sell Western literature, often introducing it to their neighbours; the colonial practice of allowing residents from colonized areas to attend university in the mainland, where they are introduced to European literary forms; and the increased trade in the entertainment industry, as Western movies and music with literary themes are presented outside Europe.
 
As a result, many non-Western cultures have had to grapple with the relationship of the genre to its Western origins. In many cultures, social realism of the kind practiced in Europe was a new approach to storytelling, and writers had to weigh the question of whether a European form of literature was appropriate for their own cultures. For instance, a writer interested in critiquing a colonial government might wonder whether a colonial literary form was appropriate; moreover, who would be the audience for the new form &ndash; the indigenous population that was unfamiliar with the genre, or the colonial population that knew the genre but that might resist the critique?
 
Oftentimes, the introduction of the novel and of Western realism provided the inspiration for new literary movements in other cultures. But these movements did not necessarily adopt the novel in a rigidly imitative fashion. Instead, novelists worked to make the novel form more appropriate for their own cultures, melding it with their own literary traditions. For instance, in the United States in recent decades, the growth of novels by ethnic minority authors has been spurred in large part by the success of key works that showed how the form could be accommodated to different cultures: For instance, many black authors incorporated their own cultural vernacular into the genre; many native American authors stressed the role of oral storytelling; Latinos incorporated both oral forms and their spiritual traditions; Asian Americans drew on long-established Asian genres, plots and characters. These same developments have been seen around the world and have been an important part of the literary history of the Americas, Sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East and North Africa, and Southern and Eastern Asia.
 
==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
===Genres of the novel===
*[[Campus novel|Campus]]
*[[Comic]]
*[[Crime fiction]]
*[[Fantasy]]
*[[Gothic fiction|Gothic]]
*[[Horror fiction|Horror]]
*[[Magic Realism]]
*[[Romance novel|Romance]]
*[[Science fiction]]
*[[Speculative fiction|Speculative]]
*[[Spy novel|Spy]]
*[[Thriller (genre)|Thriller]]
*[[American Old West|Westerns]]
{{col-break}}
*[[Romance novel]]s
*[[Spy novel]]s and [[Thriller (genre)|thriller]]s
*[[Gothic]]
 
===Literature===
==دا هم وګورۍ==
*[[ادبياتEssay]]
*[[Fiction]]
**[[لنډه کيسه]]
**[[Novella]]
**[[Novelette]]
**[[Novella]]
**[[Romance (genre)]]
**[[Short story]]
*[[Fiction writing]]
*[[Byzantine novel]]
*[[په انګرېزي ژبه لومړنی ناول]]
*[[List of novels whose action takes place within 24 hours]]
*[[Lists of books]]
*[[د ډېر پلورل شوو کتابونو لړليک]]
*[[Theater]] and [[drama]]
*[[Poetry]]
*[[د تاريخي ناولونو لړليک]]
*[[List of literary movements]]
*[[Literature]]
*[[Street literature|Street Literature]]
{{col-break}}
 
===Novels-related articles===
*[[Byzantine novel]]
*[[Chain novel]]
*[[First novel in English]]
*[[List of best-selling books]]
*[[Lists of books]]
*[[List of historical novels]]
*[[List of novels, the action of which takes place within 24 hours]]
*[[Live novel]]
*[[NaNoWriMo]]
*[[The Internet Book Database]]
*[[د انټرنيټي کتابونو ډېټابېز]]
{{col-end}}
*[[Live_novel]]
 
==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}
 
==Further reading==
===Contemporary views===
*'''1651''': Paul Scarron, ''The Comical Romance'', Chapter XXI. "Which perhaps will not be found very Entertaining" (London, 1700). Scarron's plea for a French production rivalling the Spanish "Novels". [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/library/e-1700-0002.html#c21 Marteauonline edition]
*'''1670''': Pierre Daniel Huet, "Traitté de l'origine des Romans", Preface to Marie-Madeleine Pioche de La Vergne comtesse de La Fayette, ''Zayde, histoire espagnole'' (Paris, 1670). A world history of fiction. [http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-57594 pdf-edition Gallica France]
*'''1683''': [Du Sieur], "Sentimens sur l’histoirel'histoire" from: ''Sentimens sur les lettres et sur l’histoirel'histoire, avec des scruples sur le stile'' (Paris: C. Blageart, 1680). The new novels as published masterly by Marie de LaFayette . [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1683-1712-novels.html Marteauonline edition]
*'''1702''': Abbe Bellegarde, "Lettre à une Dame de la Cour, qui lui avoit demandé quelques Reflexions sur l’Histoirel'Histoire" ausin: ''Lettres curieuses de littérature et de morale'' (La Haye: Adrian Moetjens, 1702). Paraphrase of Du Sieur's text. [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1683-1712-novels.html Marteauonline edition]
*'''1705/1708/1712''': [Anon.] In English, French and German the Preface of ''The Secret History of Queen Zarah and the Zarazians'' (Albigion, 1705). Bellegarde's article plagiarised. [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1683-1712-novels.html Marteauonline edition]
*'''1713''': ''Deutsche Acta Eruditorum'', German review of the French translation of Delarivier Manley's ''New Atalantis'' 1709 (Leipzig: J. L. Gleditsch, 1713). A rare example of a political novel discussed by a literary journal. [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1712-atalantis.html Marteauonline edition]
*'''1715''': Jane Barker, preface to her ''Exilius or the Banish’dBanish'd Roman. A New Romance'' (London: E. Curll, 1715). Plea for a "New Romance" following Fénlon's ''Telmachus''. [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/library/e-1715-0008.html Marteauonline edition]
*'''1718''': [Johann Friedrich Riederer], "Satyra von den Liebes-Romanen", from: ''Die abentheuerliche Welt in einer Pickelheerings-Kappe'', 2 ([Nürnberg,] 1718). German satire about the wide spread reading of novels and romances. [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/1718-liebes-romane.html Marteauonline edition]
*'''1742''': Henry Fielding, preface to ''Joseph Andrews'' (London, 1742). The "comic epic in prose" and its poetics. [http://www.blackmaskmunseys.com/books55cdiskone/joeandrewdex.htm Blackmaskonline edition]
 
===Secondary literature===
*[[Erwin Rohde]] ''Der Griechesche Roman und seine Vorläufer'' (1876) [un-superseded history of the ancient novel] {{de icon}}
*{{cite book | first = Georg | last = Lukács | authorlink = Georg Lukács | year = 1971, 1916 | title = The Theory of the Novel | others = trans. Anna Bostock | publisher = M.I.T. Press | location = Cambridge | id = ISBN 0-262-12048-8}}
*{{cite book | first = IanGeorg | last = WattLukács | authorlink = IanGeorg WattLukács | year = 20001971, 19571916 | title = The RiseTheory of the Novel: Studies| inothers Defoe,= Richardsontrans. andAnna FieldingBostock | publisher = University of Los Angeles[[M.I.T.]] Press | location = BerkeleyCambridge | idisbn = ISBN 0-520262-2306912048-8}} Watt reads ''Robinson Crusoe'' as the first modern "novel" and interprets the rise of the modern novel of realism as an achievement of English literature, owed to a number of factors from early capitalism to the development of the modern individual.
*[[Bakhtin]], Mikhail. ''About novel''. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JKZztxqdIpgC The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays]''. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1981. [written during the 1930s]
*{{cite book | first = Ian | last = Watt | authorlink = Ian Watt | year = 1957 | title = The Rise of the Novel: Studies in Defoe, Richardson and Fielding | publisher = University of Los Angeles Press | location = Berkeley | isbn = 0-520-23069-8}} Watt reads ''Robinson Crusoe'' as the first modern "novel" and interprets the rise of the modern novel of realism as an achievement of English literature, owed to a number of factors from early capitalism to the development of the modern individual.
*{{cite book | first = Anthony | last = Burgess | authorlink = Anthony Burgess | year = 1963 | title = The Novel To-day | publisher = Longmans, Green | location = London}}
*{{cite book | first = Anthony | last = Burgess | year = 1967 | title = The Novel Now: A Student's Guide to Contemporary Fiction | publisher = Faber | location = London}}
*Ben Edwin Perry ''[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-8353(196704)62%3A7%3C321%3ATARALA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J The Ancient Romances]'' (Berkeley, 1967) review
*Burgess, Anthony (1970). "Novel, The" – classic [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] entry.
*{{cite book | first = John J. | last = Richetti | year = 1969 | title = Popular Fiction before Richardson. Narrative Patterns 1700-1739 | publisher = OUP | location = Oxford | id = ISBN }}
*Miller, H. K., G. S. Rousseau and Eric Rothstein, The Augustan Milieu: Essays Presented to Louis A. Landa, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970). ISBN 0-19-811697-7
*Burgess, Anthony (1970). "Novel, The"&nbsp;– classic [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] entry.
*{{cite book | first = Lennard J. | last = Davis | year = 1983 | title = Factual Fictions: The Origins of the English Novel | publisher = Columbia University Press | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-231-05420-3}}
*Miller, H. K., G. S. (1970) ''Rousseau and Eric Rothstein, The Augustan Milieu: Essays Presented to Louis A. Landa'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970). ISBN 0-19-811697-7
*{{cite book | first = Nancy | last = Armstrong | year = 1987 | title = Desire and Domestic Fiction: A Political History of the Novel | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-19-504179-8}}
*Arthur Ray Heiserman ''The Novel Before the Novel'' (Chicago, 1977) ISBN 0226325725
*{{cite book | first = Michael | last = McKeon | year = 1987 | title = The Origins of the English Novel, 1600-1740 | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | location = Baltimore | id = ISBN 0-8018-3291-8}}
*{{cite book | first = J.David Paul|last = Madden | lastorigyear=1979 | coauthors = HunterCharles Bane, Sean M. Flory | year=2006 | edition=revised 1990ed. | title = BeforeA Novels:Primer Theof Culturalthe ContextsNovel: ofFor Eighteenth-CenturyReaders Englishand FictionWriters | publisher =Scarecrow NortonPress | location = NewLanham, YorkMD | id isbn= ISBN 0-3938108-028015708-1}} Updated edition of pioneering typology and history of over 50 genres; index of types and technique, and detailed chronology.
*Spufford, Magaret, ''Small Books and Pleasant Histories'' (London, 1981).
*{{cite book | first = Ros | last = Ballaster | year = 1992 | title = Seductive Forms: Women's Amatory Fiction from 1684-1740 | publisher = Clarendon Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0-19-811244-0}}
*{{cite book | first = MargaretLennard AnneJ. | last = DoodyDavis | year = 19961983 | title = TheFactual TrueFictions: The StoryOrigins of the English Novel | publisher = RutgersColumbia University Press | location = New Brunswick, N.J.York | idisbn = ISBN 0-8135231-216805420-83}}
*Spencer, Jane, ''The Rise of Woman Novelists. From Aphra Behn to Jane Austen'' (Oxford, 1986).
*{{cite book | first = Olaf | last = Simons | year = 2001 | title = Marteaus Europa, oder, Der Roman, Bevor er Literatur Wurde: eine Untersuchung des Deutschen und Englischen Buchangebots der Jahre 1710 bis 1720 | publisher = Rodopi | location = Amsterdam | id = ISBN 90-420-1226-9}} A market study of the novel around 1700 interpreting contemporary criticism.
*{{cite book | first = LeahNancy | last = PriceArmstrong | year = 20031987 | title = The AnthologyDesire and theDomestic Fiction: RiseA Political History of the Novel: From Richardson to George Eliot | publisher = CambridgeOxford University Press | location = LondonNew York | idisbn = ISBN 0-52119-53939504179-08}} from [[Leah Price]]
*{{cite book | first = Michael | last = McKeon | year = 1987 | title = The Origins of the English Novel, 1600-1740 | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | location = Baltimore | isbn = 0-8018-3291-8}}
*Rousseau, George (2004. ''Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature Culture and Sensibility'' (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). ISBN 1-4039-3454-1
*{{cite book | first = DavidBryan | last = MaddenReardon | origyear=1979 | coauthors = Charles Bane, Sean M(ed. Flory) | year=2006 | edition=revised ed.1989 | title = ACollected PrimerAncient ofGreek theNovels Novel:| Forpublisher Readers= andUniversity Writersof | publisher=ScarecrowCalifornia Press | location = Lanham Berkeley, MD CA| idisbn =ISBN 0-8108520-570804306-15}} Updated edition of pioneering typology and history of over 50 genres; index of types and technique, and detailed chronology.
*{{cite book | first = J. Paul | last = Hunter | year = 1990 | title = Before Novels: The Cultural Contexts of Eighteenth-Century English Fiction | publisher = Norton | location = New York | isbn = 0-393-02801-1}}
 
*{{cite book | first = Ros | last = Ballaster | year = 1992 | title = Seductive Forms: Women's Amatory Fiction from 1684-1740 | publisher = Clarendon Press | location = Oxford | isbn = 0-19-811244-0}}
==External links==
*{{cite book | first = Margaret Anne | last = Doody | year = 1996 | title = The True Story of the Novel | publisher = Rutgers University Press | location = New Brunswick, N.J. | isbn = 0-8135-2168-8}}
*[[Modern Library]] lists of [http://www.randomhouse.com/modernlibrary/100bestnovels.html 100 Best Novels]
*Relihan, Constance C. (ed.), ''Framing Elizabethan fictions: contemporary approaches to early modern narrative prose'' (Kent, Ohio/ London: [[Kent State University Press]], 1996). ISBN 0873385519
*[http://www.peacecorpswriters.org/pages/depts/resources/resour_writers/100daysbook/bk100da.html How to write a novel in 100 days or less]
*''Reconsidering The Rise of the Novel: Eighteenth Century Fiction'', Volume 12, Number 2-3, ed. David Blewett (January-April 2000).
*[http://www.nanowrimo.org National Novel Writing Month] – Write a novel in 30 days (November)
*McKeon, Michael, ''Theory of the Novel: A Historical Approach'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000).
*[http://book-in-a-week.com Book-in-a-Week Writing Group]
*Josephine Donovan, ''Women and the Rise of the Novel, 1405-1726'' revised edition (Palgrave Macmillan, 2000).
 
*{{cite book | first = Olaf | last = Simons | year = 2001 | title = Marteaus Europa, oder, Der Roman, bevor er Literatur wurde: eine Untersuchung des Deutschen und Englischen Buchangebots der Jahre 1710 bis 1720 | publisher = Rodopi | location = Amsterdam | isbn = 90-420-1226-9}} A market study of the novel around 1700 interpreting contemporary criticism.
* Inger Leemans, ''Het woord is aan de onderkant: radicale ideeën in Nederlandse pornografische romans 1670 - 1700'' (Nijmegen: Vantilt, 2002). ISBN 90-75697-89-9.
 
*{{cite book | first = Leah | last = Price | year = 2003 | title = The Anthology and the Rise of the Novel: From Richardson to George Eliot | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = London | isbn = 0-521-53939-0}} from [[Leah Price]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:*}}
*Rousseau, George (2004). ''Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature Culture and Sensibility'' (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004). ISBN 1-4039-3454-1
 
*Mentz, Steve, ''Romance for sale in early modern England: the rise of prose fiction'' (Aldershot [etc.]: Ashgate, 2006). ISBN 0-7546-5469-9
[[Category:Novels]]
*Schultz, Lydia, "Flowing against the traditional stream: consciousness in Tillie Olsen's 'Tell Me a Riddle.'" Melus, 1997.
[[Category:Novelists]]
*Rubens, Robert, "A hundred years of fiction: 1896 to 1996. (The English Novel in the Twentieth Century, part 12)." Contemporary Review, December 1996.
{{Fiction writing}}
[[Category:Fiction]]
[[Category:Fiction forms]]
[[Category:Novels| ]]
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