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په ژونپوهنه کې د دې ټولو بنسټيزو ډلبنديو او ځانګړو ډګرونو سره سره، د ژونپوهنې ګڼ شمېر عملي ډګرونه لکه طبابت او ژنيټيکې څېړنې بيا د پېچلو او ګرانو زده کړو ډګرونه دي چې پخپل ځان کې په لانورو څانګو او وړو کارپوهنيزو برخو وېشل شوي.
Biology as a unified [[science]] was first developed in the nineteenth century, as scientists discovered that all living things shared certain fundamental characteristics and were best studied as a whole. Today, biology is a standard subject of instruction at schools and universities around the world, and over a million papers are published annually in a wide array of biology and medicine [[Academic journal|journals]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Biology: A Functional Approach|author=King, TJ & Roberts, MBV|publisher=Thomas Nelson and Sons|date=1986|isbn=978-0174480358}}</ref>
=== سرچينې ===
== د نوې ژونپوهنې بنسټونه ==
<references/>
{{ژباړل}}
Biology is a branch of [[science]] that characterizes and investigates living organisms utilizing the [[scientific method]]. There are four broad unifying principles of biology:
* [[Cell theory]]. All living organisms are made of at least one cell, the basic unit of function in all organisms. In addition, the core mechanisms and chemistry of all cells in all organisms are similar, and cells emerge only from preexisting cells that multiply through cell division.
* [[Evolution]]. Through [[natural selection]] and [[genetic drift]], a population's inherited traits change from generation to generation.
* [[Gene|Gene theory]]. A living organism's traits are encoded in their [[DNA]], the fundamental component of genes. In addition, traits are passed on from one generation to the next by way of these genes. All information flows from genes to the [[phenotype]], the observable physical or biochemical characteristics of the organism. Although the phenotype expressed by the gene may adapt to the environment of the organism, that information is not transferred back to the genes. Only through the process of evolution do genes change in response to the environment.
* [[Homeostasis]]. The physiological processes that allow an organism to maintain its internal environment notwithstanding its external environment.
=== د سلول نظريه ===
{{main|د سلول نظريه}}
The cell is the fundamental unit of life. Cell theory states that all living things are composed of one or more cells, or the [[secretion|secreted]] products of those cells, for example, [[animal shell|shell]] and [[bone]]. Cells arise from other cells through [[cell division]], and in multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body is produced from a single cell in a fertilized egg. Furthermore, the cell is considered to be the basic part of the pathological processes of an organism.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Mazzarello, P|title=A unifying concept: the history of cell theory|journal=Nature Cell Biology|volume=1|pages=E13-E15|date=1999|doi=10.1038/8964}}</ref>
=== تدريجي تکامل ===
{{main|Evolution}}
A central organizing concept in biology is that all life has a common origin (see [[Common descent]]) and has changed and developed through [[evolution]]. This has led to the striking similarity of units and processes discussed in the previous section. [[Charles Darwin]] established evolution as a viable theory by articulating its driving force, [[natural selection]] ([[Alfred Russel Wallace]] is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept). Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of [[natural selection]] as well as by [[artificial selection]] or [[selective breeding]]. [[Genetic drift]] was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the [[modern synthesis]] of the theory.
The evolutionary history of a [[species]]— which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended— together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is called its [[phylogeny]]. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of [[DNA sequence]]s conducted within [[molecular biology]] or [[genomics]], and comparisons of [[fossil]]s or other records of ancient organisms in [[paleontology]]. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]]. For a summary of major events in the evolution of life as currently understood by biologists, see [[evolutionary timeline]].
<br clear="right">
Up into the [[19th century]], it was commonly believed that life forms could appear spontaneously under certain conditions (see [[spontaneous generation]]). This misconception was challenged by [[William Harvey]]'s diction that "all life [is] from [an] egg" (from the [[Latin]] "[[Omne vivum ex ovo]]"), a foundational concept of modern biology. It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time.
A group of organisms shares a [[common descent]] if they share a common [[ancestor]]. All [[organism]]s on the [[Earth]] both living and extinct have been or are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral [[gene pool]]. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about [[Timeline of evolution|3.5 billion years ago]]. Biologists generally regard the universality of the [[genetic code]] as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s (see: [[origin of life]]).
=== د جين تيوري ===
[[دوتنه:DNA-structure-and-bases.png|thumb|Schematic representation of [[DNA]], the primary [[genetic material]].]]
{{main|Gene}}
Biological form and function is created from and is passed on to the next generation by genes, which are the primary units of inheritance. Physiological adaption to an organism's environment cannot be coded into its genes and cannot be inherited by its offspring (see [[Lamarckism]]). Remarkably, widely different organisms, including bacteria, plants, animals, and fungi, all share the same basic machinery that copies and transcribes DNA into proteins. For example, bacteria with inserted human DNA will correctly yield the corresponding human protein.
The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its [[genome]] which is stored on one or more [[chromosomes]]. A chromosome is a single, long DNA strand on which thousands of genes, depending on the organism, are encoded. When a gene is active, the DNA code is [[Transcription (genetics)|transcribed]] into an RNA copy of the gene's information. A [[ribosome]] then [[Translation (biology)|translates]] the RNA into a structural [[protein]] or [[enzyme|catalytic protein]].
=== هوميوسټاسېز ===
<!--[[Image:Lac_operon.png|thumb|left|250px|An example of [[homeostasis]]: the [[Lac operon]] is mechanism of [[gene regulation]] which prevents the build-up of [[lactose]].]] in the process of checking this is actually homeostatic-->
{{main|Homeostasis}}
Homeostasis is the ability of an [[open system]] to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable condition by means of multiple [[dynamic equilibrium]] adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. All living [[organism]]s, whether [[unicellular]] or [[multicellular]], exhibit homeostasis. Homeostasis exists at the cellular level, for example cells maintain a stable internal acidity ([[pH]]); and at the level of the organism, for example [[warm-blooded]] animals maintain a constant internal body temperature. Homeostasis is a term that is also used in association with [[ecosystems]], for example, the atmospheric concentration of [[carbon dioxide]] on Earth has been regulated by the concentration of plant life on Earth because [[plants]] remove more [[carbon dioxide]] from the atmosphere during the daylight hours than they emit to the atmosphere at night. [[Biological tissue|Tissues]] and [[organ (biology)|organs]] can also maintain homeostasis.
== څېړنه ==
{{main|List of biology disciplines}}
=== جوړښت ===
[[دوتنه:biological cell.svg|thumb|300px|Schematic of typical animal [[cell (biology)|cell]] depicting the various [[organelle]]s and structures.]]
{{main|Molecular biology|Cell biology|Genetics|Developmental biology}}
[[Molecular biology]] is the study of biology at a [[molecular]] level. This field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated.
[[Cell biology]] studies the [[physiology|physiological]] properties of [[cell (biology)|cells]], as well as their [[behavior]]s, interactions, and [[natural environment|environment]]. This is done both on a [[microscope|microscopic]] and [[molecule|molecular]] level. Cell biology researches both single-celled organisms like [[bacterium|bacteria]] and specialized cells in multicellular organisms like [[human]]s.
Understanding cell composition and how they function is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important in the fields of cell and molecular biology. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types.
[[Genetics]] is the [[science]] of [[gene]]s, [[heredity]], and the variation of [[organism]]s. [[Gene]]s encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins, which in turn play a large role in influencing (though, in many instances, not completely determining) the final [[phenotype]] of the organism. In modern research, genetics provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of [[genetic interaction]]s. Within [[organism]]s, genetic information generally is carried in [[chromosome]]s, where it is represented in the [[DNA sequence|chemical structure]] of particular [[DNA]] [[molecule]]s.
Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop. Originating in [[embryology]], modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of [[cell growth]], [[cellular differentiation|differentiation]], and "[[morphogenesis]]," which is the process that gives rise to [[biological tissue|tissues]], [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], and [[anatomy]].
[[Model organism]]s for developmental biology include the round worm ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', the fruit fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', the zebrafish ''[[Brachydanio rerio]]'', the mouse ''[[Mus musculus]]'', and the weed ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''.
=== فيزيولوژيک ===
{{main|Physiology|Anatomy}}
Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into [[plant physiology]] and [[animal physiology]], but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular [[organism]] is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of [[yeast]] cells can also apply to [[human]] cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of [[human physiology]] to non-human [[species]]. Plant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields.
[[Anatomy]] is an important branch of physiology and considers how [[organ (biology)|organ]] systems in animals, such as the [[nervous system|nervous]], [[immune system|immune]], [[endocrine system|endocrine]], [[respiratory system|respiratory]], and [[circulatory system|circulatory]] systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with [[medicine|medically]] oriented disciplines such as [[neurology]] and [[immunology]].
=== تدريجي تکامل ===
[[دوتنه:fitness-landscape-cartoon.png|thumb|300px|In [[population genetics]] the [[evolution]] of a [[population]] of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a [[fitness landscape]]. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak.]]
{{main|Evolutionary biology|Evolution|Evolutionary synthesis|Natural selection}}
Evolution is concerned with the origin and descent of [[species]], as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many [[alpha taxonomy|taxonomically]]-oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular [[organism]]s such as [[mammals|mammalogy]], [[birds|ornithology]], [[botany]], or [[reptiles|herpetology]], but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. Evolutionary biology is mainly based on [[paleontology]], which uses the [[fossil]] record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, as well as the developments in areas such as [[population genetics]] and evolutionary theory. In the [[1990s]], [[developmental biology]] re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of [[evolutionary developmental biology]]. Related fields which are often considered part of evolutionary biology are [[phylogenetics]], [[systematics]], and [[alpha taxonomy|taxonomy]].
Up into the [[19th century]], it was believed that life forms were being continuously created under certain conditions (see [[Abiogenesis#Spontaneous generation|spontaneous generation]]). This misconception was challenged by [[William Harvey]]'s diction that "all life [is] from [an] egg" (from the [[Latin]] "[[Omne vivum ex ovo]]"), a foundational concept of modern biology. It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time.
A group of organisms shares a common descent if they share a common [[ancestor]]. All [[organism]]s on the [[Earth]] have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral [[gene pool]]. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about [[Timeline of evolution|3.5 billion years ago]]. Biologists generally regard the universality of the [[genetic code]] as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s (see: [[origin of life]]).
The two major traditional taxonomically-oriented disciplines are [[botany]] and [[zoology]]. Botany is the scientific study of [[plant]]s. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the [[Individual growth|growth]], [[reproduction]], [[metabolism]], [[morphogenesis|development]], [[phytopathology|diseases]], and [[evolution]] of plant life. Zoology involves the study of [[animal]]s, including the study of their [[physiology]] within the fields of [[anatomy]] and [[embryology]]. The common [[genetics|genetic]] and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in [[molecular biology]], [[molecular genetics]], and [[developmental biology]]. The [[ecology]] of animals is covered under [[behavioral ecology]] and other fields.<ref name="Futuyma"/>
=== ټاکزونومي ===
[[دوتنه:Phylogenetic tree.svg|thumb|340px|A [[phylogenetic tree]] of [[evolutionary tree|all living things]], based on [[rRNA]] [[gene]] data, showing the separation of the three domains [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s as described initially by [[Carl Woese]]. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.]]
{{main|Taxonomy}}
Classification is the province of the disciplines of [[systematics]] and [[alpha taxonomy|taxonomy]]. Taxonomy places organisms in groups called [[taxa]], while systematics seeks to define their relationships with each other. This classification technique has evolved to reflect advances in [[cladistics]] and [[genetics]], shifting the focus from physical similarities and shared characteristics to [[phylogenetics]].
Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms:<ref>{{cite book|last=Margulis|first=L|coauthors=Schwartz, KV|authorlink=Lynn Margulis|title=Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth|edition=3rd edition|publisher= WH Freeman & Co|location=|year=[[1997]]|isbn=978-0716731832|series=}}</ref>
:[[Monera]] -- [[Protist]]a -- [[Fungus|Fungi]] -- [[Plant]]ae -- [[Animal]]ia
However, many scientists now consider this five-kingdom system to be outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally begin with the [[three-domain system]]:<ref>{{cite journal | author = Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M | title = Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya. | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4576 | journal = Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A | issn = 0027-8424 | volume = 87 | issue = 12 | pages = 4576-9 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2112744}}</ref>
:[[Archaea]] (originally Archaebacteria) -- [[Bacterium|Bacteria]] (originally Eubacteria) -- [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the cell exteriors.
Further, each kingdom is broken down continuously until each species is separately classified. The order is:
# [[Domain (biology)|Domain]]
# [[Kingdom (biology)|Kingdom]]
# [[Phylum]]
# [[Class (biology)|Class]]
# [[Order (biology)|Order]]
# [[Family (biology)|Family]]
# [[Genus]]
# [[Species]]
The scientific name of an organism is obtained from its genus and species. For example, humans would be listed as ''[[Homo sapiens]]''. ''Homo'' would be the genus and ''sapiens'' is the species. Whenever writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the species in lowercase; in addition the entire term would be put in italics or underlined. The term used for classification is called [[taxonomy]].
There is also a series of intracellular [[parasite]]s that are progressively "less alive" in terms of [[metabolism|metabolic]] activity:
:[[virus (biology)|Viruses]] -- [[Viroid]]s -- [[Prion]]s
The dominant classification system is called [[Linnaean taxonomy]], which includes ranks and [[binomial nomenclature]]. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature]] (ICBN), the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]] (ICZN), and the [[International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria]] (ICNB). A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted. The [[Virus classification|Virus cInternational Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature]] (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode.
=== چاپېريالي ژونپوهنه ===
{{main|Ecology|Ethology|Behavior|Biogeography}}
[[Ecology]] studies the distribution and abundance of [[life|living organisms]], and the interactions between organisms and their [[natural environment|environment]]. The environment of an organism includes both its habitat, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as [[climate]] and [[ecology]], as well as the other the organisms that share its habitat. Ecological systems are studied at several different levels, from individuals and [[population]]s to [[ecosystem]]s and the [[biosphere]]. As can be surmised, ecology is a science that draws on several disciplines.
[[Ethology]] studies [[animal]] [[behavior]] (particularly of social animals such as [[primate]]s and [[canidae|canids]]), and is sometimes considered a branch of [[zoology]]. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the [[evolution]] of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of [[natural selection]]. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was [[Charles Darwin]], whose book "[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]" influenced many ethologists.
[[Biogeography]] studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the [[Earth]], focusing on topics like [[plate tectonics]], [[climate change]], dispersal and migration, and [[cladistics]].
Every living thing interacts with other organisms and its [[natural environment|environment]]. One reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and the environment are possible, even on the smallest of scales. A microscopic [[bacterium]] responding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its environment as much as a [[lion]] is responding to its environment when it searches for food in the [[Africa]]n [[savanna]]h. For any given species, [[behavior]]s can be [[co-operation|co-operative]], [[aggression|aggressive]], [[parasite|parasitic]] or [[symbiosis|symbiotic]]. Matters become more complex when two or more different species interact in an [[ecosystem]]. Studies of this type are the province of [[ecology]].
== تاريخ ==
{{main|History of biology|History of medicine}}
Although the concept of ''[[biology]]'' as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from [[history of medicine|traditions of medicine]] and [[natural history]] reaching back to [[Galen]] and [[Aristotle]] in ancient Greece. During the Renaissance and early modern period, biological thought was revolutionized by a renewed interest in [[empiricism]] and the discovery of many novel organisms. Prominent in this movement were [[Vesalius]] and [[William Harvey|Harvey]], who used experimentation and careful observation in physiology, and naturalists such as [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] and [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffon]] who began to [[Scientific classification|classify the diversity of life]] and the [[fossil record]], as well as the development and behavior of organisms. [[Microscopy]] revealed the previously unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for [[cell theory]]. The growing importance of [[natural theology]], partly a response to the rise of [[mechanical philosophy]], encouraged the growth of natural history.<ref name="Mayr">{{cite book|author=Mayr, E|authorlink=Ernst Mayr|title=The Growth of Biological Thought|date=1985|publisher=Belknap Press|isbn=978-0674364462}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Magner, LN|title=A History of the Life Sciences|publisher=TF-CRC|isbn=978-0824708245|date=2002}}</ref>
Over the 18th and 19th centuries, biological sciences such as [[botany]] and [[zoology]] became increasingly professional [[scientific discipline]]s. [[Lavoisier]] and other physical scientists began to connect the animate and inanimate worlds through physics and chemistry. Explorer-naturalists such as [[Alexander von Humboldt]] investigated the interaction between organisms and their environment, and the ways this relationship depends on geography—laying the foundations for [[biogeography]], [[ecology]] and [[ethology]]. Naturalists began to reject [[essentialism]] and consider the importance of [[extinction]] and the [[history of evolutionary thought|mutability of species]]. [[Cell theory]] provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from [[embryology]] and [[paleontology]], were synthesized in {{aps|Charles Darwin}}s theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of [[spontaneous generation]] and the rise of the [[germ theory of disease]], though the mechanism of [[biological inheritance|inheritance]] remained a mystery.<ref name="Futuyma">{{cite book|author=Futuyma, DJ|title=Evolution|date=2005|publisher=Sinauer Associates|isbn=978-0878931873}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Coleman, W|title=Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function and Transformation|date=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521292931}}</ref><ref name="Mayr"/>
In the early 20th century, the rediscovery of [[Gregor Mendel|Mendel's]] work led to the rapid development of [[genetics]] by [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] and his students, and by the 1930s the combination of [[population genetics]] and natural selection in the "[[Modern evolutionary synthesis|neo-Darwinian synthesis]]". New disciplines developed rapidly, especially after [[James D. Watson|Watson]] and [[Francis Crick|Crick]] proposed the structure of [[DNA]]. Following the establishment of the [[Central Dogma]] and the cracking of the [[genetic code]], biology was largely split between ''organismal biology''—the fields that deal with whole organisms and groups of organisms—and the fields related to ''[[cell biology|cellular]] and [[molecular biology]]''. By the late 20th century, new fields like [[genomics]] and [[proteomics]] were reversing this trend, with organismal biologists using molecular techniques, and molecular and cell biologists investigating the interplay between genes and the environment, as well as the genetics of natural populations of organisms.<ref>{{cite book|author=Allen, GE|title=Life Science in the Twentieth Century|date=1978|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521292962}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Fruton, JS|title=Proteins, Enzymes, Genes: The Interplay of Chemistry and Biology|publisher=Yale University Press|date=1999|isbn=978-0300076080}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Morange, M & Cobb, M|title=A History of Molecular Biology|date=2000|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674001695}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Smocovitis, VB|title=Unifying Biology|date=1996|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691033433}}</ref>
== دا هم وګورۍ ==
: ''Main lists: [[List of biology topics]], [[List of basic biology topics]] and [[List of biologists]]''
{{Mergeto|Portal:Biology/Major topics|date=August 2007}}
{| width="100%" bgcolor="#fff4f4" id="toc"
!align="center" colspan="2"|[[List of biology topics|Topics related to biology]] ([[:Category:Biology|Category]])
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"|People and history
|align="left" valign="top"|[[Biologist]] - [[List of biologists|Notable biologists]] - [[History of biology]] - [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] - [[Timeline of biology and organic chemistry]] - [[List of geneticists and biochemists]]
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"|Institutions, publications
|align="left" valign="top"|[[NASA Ames Research Center]] - [[Bachelor of Science]] - [[List of publications in biology|Publications]]
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"|Terms and phrases
|align="left" valign="top"|''[[Omne vivum ex ovo]]'' - ''[[In vivo]]'' - ''[[In vitro]]'' - ''[[In utero]]{{dn}}'' - ''[[In silico]]''
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"|Related disciplines
|align="left" valign="top"|[[Medicine]] ([[Physician]]) - [[Physical anthropology]] - [[Environmental science]] - [[Life Sciences]] - [[Biotechnology]]
|-align="center"
|-align="center"
!align="left" valign="top"|Other
|align="left" valign="top"|[[List of conservation topics]] - [[Altricial]] and [[Precocial]] development strategies
|}
== اخيستنځايونه ==
{{reflist}}
== نورې لوستنې ==
* {{cite book|last =Alberts|first=Bruce|coauthors=Johnson, A, Lewis, J, Raff, M, Roberts, K & Walter, P|title=Molecular Biology of the Cell|edition=4th edition|publisher=Garland|location=|year=2002|isbn=978-0815332183|series=}}
* {{cite book|last=Begon|first=Michael|coauthors= Townsend, CR & Harper, JL|title=Ecology: From Individuals to Ecosystems|edition=4th edition|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Limited|year=2005|isbn=978-1405111171|}}
* {{cite book|last=Campbell|first=Neil|authorlink=Neil Campbell|title=Biology|edition=7th edition|publisher=Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company|location=|year=[[2004]]|isbn=0-8053-7146-X|series=}}
* {{cite book|last=Colinvaux|first=Paul|title=Why Big Fierce Animals are Rare: An Ecologist's Perspective|edition=reissue edition|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1979|isbn=0691023646|}}
* {{cite book|last=Hoagland|first=Mahlon|authorlink=|title=The Way Life Works|edition=reprint edition|publisher=Jones and Bartlett Publishers inc|location=|year=2001|isbn=076371688X|series=}}
* {{cite book|last=Janovy|first=John Jr.|authorlink=John Janovy|title=On Becoming a Biologist|edition=2nd edition|publisher=Bison Books|location=|year=2004|isbn=0803276206|series=}}
* {{cite book|last=Johnson|first=George B.|authorlink=Johnson George B.|title=Biology, Visualizing Life|publisher=Holt, Rinehart, and Winston|location=|year=[[2005]]|isbn=0-03-016723-X|series=}}
== باندنۍ تړنې ==
{{wikibooks}}
{{wiktionary}}
{{wikiversity3|School:Biology|Biology|The School of Biology}}
{{portal|Biology|Issoria lathonia.jpg}}
* [http://www.dnalc.org/ The Dolan DNA Learning Center: The source for timely information about your life]
* [http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index.html OSU's Phylocode]
* [http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html ''The Tree of Life'']: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity.
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Biology/7-012Fall-2004/VideoLectures/ MIT video lecture series on biology]
* [http://www.openwetware.org A wiki site for protocol sharing run from MIT].
* [http://www.bioeticaunbosque.edu.co/english/ Biology and Bioethics].
* [http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/ Biology online wiki dictionary].
* [http://bio-alive.com/ Biology Video Sharing Community].
=== د ژورنال تړنې ===
* [http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=index-html&issn=1545-7885 PLos Biology] A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the Public Library of Science
* [http://www.biolsci.org International Journal of Biological Sciences] A biological journal publishes peer-reviewed scientific papers of significance
* [http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/index.html Perspectives in Biology and Medicine]
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