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[[دوتنه:Sultan-Mahmud-Ghaznawi.jpg|thumb|289px|سلطان محمود غزنوي]]
'''سلطان محمود غزنوي''' (۲ د اکتوبر، ۹۷۱ ز. ک – ۳۰ د اپرېل، ۱۰۳۰ ز. ک) چې د '''يمين الدولة محمود''' (يا: '''يمين الدولة عبدالقاسم محمود ابن سبکتګين''') هم يادېږي د ۹۹۷ ز. کال نه تر خپل مړينې پورې د غزني امپراتور پاچا ؤ.
'''سلطان محمود غزنوي''' (۲ د اکتوبر، ۹۷۱ ز. ک – ۳۰ د اپرېل، ۱۰۳۰ ز. ک) چې د '''يمين الدولة محمود''' (يا: '''يمين الدولة عبدالقاسم محمود ابن سبکتګين''') هم يادېږي د ۹۹۷ ز. کال نه تر خپل مړينې پورې د غزني امپراتور پاچا ؤ. Mahmud turned the former provincial city of [[Ghazni]] into the wealthy capital of an extensive empire which included modern-day [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], most of [[Iran]] and parts of northwest [[India]]. He was also the first ruler to carry the title [[Sultan]], signifying his break from the suzerainity of the [[Caliph]].
== نسب==
[[دوتنه:Mahmud and Ayaz and Shah Abbas I.jpg|thumb|250px|left|'''Mahmud and Ayaz'''<br />The Sultan is to the right, shaking the hand of the sheykh, with [[Malik Ayaz|Ayaz]] standing behind him. The figure to his right is [[Shah Abbas I]] who reigned about 600 years later.<br />Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art, Tehran]]
Mahmud's grandfather was [[Alptigin]], a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] slave-guard of the [[Samanids]] in [[Balkh]] who crossed the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains to seize [[Ghazni]] from the declining Samanid kingdom, located strategically on the road between [[Kabul]] and [[Kandahar]]. Alptigin was succeeded in [[977]] by his slave and son-in-law [[Sabuktigin]], who enlarged upon Alptigin's conquests, extending his domain north to [[Balkh]], west to [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]] and [[Khorasan province]], and east to the [[Indus River]]. According to [[Ferishta]], Mahmoud's mother was a Persian noble from [[Zabulistan]]<ref>[[Ferishta|Muhammad Qāsim Hindū Šāh Astarābādī Firištah]], ''"History Of The Mohamedan Power In India"'', Chapter I, ''"Sultān Mahmūd-e Ghaznavī"'', p.27</ref> - this information contradicts [[Ferdowsi]]'s satirization of Mahmud for ''"being descended from slaves on both maternal and paternal side"''.
Sabuktigin was recognized by the [[Caliph]] in [[Baghdad]] as governor of his dominions. He died in [[997]], and was succeeded by his younger son Sultan [[Ismail of Ghazni]]. Mahmud rebelled against his younger brother, Sultan [[Ismail of Ghazni]], and took over the Ghazni as the new Sultan.
== پوځي لښکرې ==
In 994 Mahmud was engaged with his father [[Sabuktigin]] in the capture of [[Khorasan]] from the rebel Fa'iq in aid of the [[Samanid]] Emir [[Nuh II of Samanid|Nuh II]]. During this period the [[Samanid]] state became highly unstable, with shifting internal political tides as various factions vied for control, chief being Abu'l-Qasim Simjuri, Fa'iq, Abu Ali, the General Behtuzun as well as the neighbouring [[Buyid]] and [[Qarakhanid]]s.
=== Consolidation of Rule ===
Sultan Mahmud's first campaign was against the [[Qarakhanid|Qarakhanid Empire]] in the North to his Empire. After his defeat he had to enlist the alliance of [[Seljuk Turks]] in southern [[Soghdiana|Soghdia]] and [[Khwarazm]] and diplomatically secure his north by 998. In 999 under the reign of [['Abd al-Malik II]] of the Samanids engaged in hostilities with Mahmud over Khorasan after political alliances shifted under a new Samanid Emir. These forces were defeated when the Kharakhanids under Nasr Khan invaded them from the North even as Fa'iq died. He then solicited an alliance and cemented it with by marrying Nasr Khan's daughter.
=== د ملتان او د هندوانو شاهي هڅې ===
Mahmud's first campaign to the south was against the [[Ismaili]] [[Fatimid]] Kingdom at [[Multan]] in a bid to curry political favour and recognition with the [[Abbassid]] [[Caliphate]] engaged with the [[Fatimid]]s elsewhere. Raja [[Jayapala]] of the Hindu [[Shahi]] Dynasty of [[Gandhara]] at this point attempted to gain retribution, for an earlier military defeats at the hands of Ghazni under Mehmud's father in the late [[980]]s that had lost him extensive territory, and is defeated once more. His son Anandapala succeeds him and continues the struggle assembling a powerful confederacy which is defeated once more at Lahore in 1008 bringing him control of the Hindu Shahi dominions of Updhanpura.<ref name="Lewis"> P. M. ( Peter Malcolm) Holt, [[Bernard Lewis]], ''The Cambridge History of Islam'', Cambridge University Press, Apr 21, 1977, ISBN 0-521-29137-2 pg 3-4.</ref>
There is considerable evidence from writings of [[Al-Biruni]], [[Soghdiana|Soghidan]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] and [[Manichean]] texts that the [[Buddhist]]s, [[Hindu]]s and [[Jain]]s were accepted as [[People of the Book]] and references to [[Buddha]] as ''Burxan'' or as a prophet can be found. After the initial destruction and pillage Buddhists, Jains and Hindus were granted protected subject status as [[dhimmi]]s.<ref>Alexander Berzin, Berzin Archives, The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire, Part III: The Spread of Islam among and by the Turkic Peoples (840 - 1206 CE) [http://www.berzinarchives.com/e-books/historic_interaction_buddhist_islamic/history_cultures_18.html]</ref>
=== د هندوستان په تکل ===
Following the defeat of the Rajput Confederacy Mahmud then decides to teach them all a lesson for combining against him and soon finds out that they are rich and that the temples are great repositories of wealth; he then sets out regular expeditions against them, leaving the conquered kingdoms in the hands of Hindu [[vassal]]s [[annex|annexing] only the [[Punjab region]].<ref name="Lewis"/> He is also on record for having vowed to raid [[Hindustan|Hind]] every year.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}
Mahmud had already had relationships with the leadership in [[Balkh]] through marriage, its local [[Emir]] Abu Nasr Mohammad, offered his services to the Sultan and his daughter to Mahmud's son, Muhammad. After Nasr’s death Mahmud brought [[Balkh]] under his leadership. This alliance greatly helped him during his expeditions into Northern India.
The Indian kingdoms of [[Nagarkot]], [[Thanesar]], [[Kannauj]], [[Gwalior]], and [[Ujjain]] were all conquered and left in the hands of [[Hindu]], [[Jain]] and [[Buddhist]] Kings as vassal states and he was pragmatic enough not to shirk making alliances and enlisting local peoples into his armies at all ranks.
The later invasions of Mahmud were specifically directed to temple towns as Indian temples were depositories of great wealth, in cash, golden idols, diamonds, and jewellery; [[Kangra|Nagarkot]], [[Thanesar]], [[Mathura]], [[Kanauj]], [[Kalinjar]] and [[Somnath]]. Mahmud's armies stripped the temples of their wealth and then destroyed them at [[Varanasi]], [[Ujjain]], [[Maheshwar]], [[Jwalamukhi]], and [[Dwarka]].
=== سياسي ننګونې او د هغه مړينه ===
The last four years of Mahmud's life were spent contending with the influx of [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz Turkic]] horse tribes from [[Central Asia]], the [[Buyid]] Dynasty and rebellions by [[Seljuqs]].
Sultan Mahmud died on [[April 30]] [[1030]]. His [[mausoleum]] is located at [[Ghazni]] (in modern Afghanistan).<ref>[http://www.zharov.com/dupree/chapter09.html Sultan Mahmud's Mausoleum in Ghazni, Afghanistan]</ref>
=== Campaign timeline ===
''As a Prince''
* 994: Gained the title of Saif-ud-dawla and became Governor of [[Khorasan]] under service to [[Nuh II of Samanid|Nuh II]] of the [[Samanid]]s in civil strife
* 995: The Samanid rebels Fa'iq (leader of a court faction that had defeated Alptigins nomination for Emir) and Abu Ali expel Mahmud from [[Nishapur]]. Mahmud and Sabuktigin defeat [[Samanid]] rebels at [[Tus]].
''As a Ruler''
* 997: '''[[Qarakhanid]] Empire'''
* 999: '''[[Khurasan]], [[Balkh]], [[Herat]], [[Marv]]''' from the [[Samanid]]s. A concurrent invasion from the North by the Qarakhanids under Elik Khan (Nasr Khan) ends [[Samanid]] rule.
* 1000: '''[[Seistan]]'''
* 1001: '''[[Gandhara]]''': Sultan Mahmud defeats [[Jayapala]] at [[Peshawar]] and [[Jayapala]] defects and commits suicide.
* 1002: '''[[Seistan]]''': Imprisoned Khuluf
* 1004: '''Bhatia''' annexed after it fails to pay its yearly tribute.
* 1005: '''[[Multan]]''' revolts under Abul-Futtah Dawood who enlists the aid of Anandapala. Defeated at [[Peshawar]] and pursued to Sodra ([[Wazirabad]]). '''Ghur''' captured. Appoints Sewakpal to administer the region. Anandapala flees to [[Kashmir]], takes refuge in the Lohara{{Fact|date=February 2007}} fort in the hills on the western border of [[Kashmir]].
* 1005: Defends [[Balkh]] and [[Khurasan]] against Nasr I of the Qarakhanids and recaptured Nishapur from [[Isma'il Muntasir]] of the Samanids.
* 1005: '''Sewakpal''' rebels and is defeated.
* 1008: Mahmud defeats the [[Rajput]] Confederacy ([[Ujjain]], [[Gwalior]], [[Kalinjar]], [[Kannauj]], [[Delhi]], and [[Ajmer]]) in battle between Und and [[Peshawar]], and captures the [[Shahi]] treasury at [[Kangra]] in the [[Punjab Hill States]].
:'''Note''': A historical narrative states in this battle, under the onslaught of the [[Gakhar]] tribe Mahmud's army was about to retreat when [[Jayapala]]'s son King Anandpala's [[elephant]] took flight and turned the tide of the battle.
* 1008: '''[[Kangra|Nagarkot]]'''
* 1010: '''Ghur'''; against Mohammad ibn Sur
* 1010: [[Multan]] revolts. Abul Fatha Dawood imprisoned for life at [[Ghazni]].
* 1011: '''[[Thanesar]]'''
* 1012: '''Joor-jistan''': Captures Sar(Czar??)-Abu-Nasr
* 1012: Demands and receives remainder of the province of Khurasan from the [[Abassid]] [[Caliph]]. Then demands [[Samarkand]] as well but is rebuffed.
* 1013: '''Bulnat''': Defeats Trilochanpala.
* 1015: Ghaznis expedition to [[Kashmir]] fails. Fails to take the Lohara{{Fact|date=February 2007}} fort at Lokote in the hills leading up to the valley from the west.
* 1015: '''[[Khwarezm]]''': Marries his sister to Aboul Abbass Mamun of Khwarezm who dies in the same year in a rebellion. Moves to quell the rebellion and installs a new ruler and annexes a portion.
* 1017: [[Kannauj]], [[Meerut]], and Muhavun on the Jamuna, [[Mathura]] and various other regions along the route. While moving through Kashmir he levies troops from vassal Prince for his onward march, [[Kannauj]] and [[Meerut]] submitted without battle.
* 1021: [[Kalinjar]] attacks [[Kannauj]]: he marches to their aid and finds the last [[Shahi]] King Trilochanpala encamped as well. No battle, the opponents leave their baggage trains and withdraw the field. Also fails to take the fort of Lokote again. Takes [[Lahore]] on his return, [[Shahi]] flee to Ajmer. First Muslim governors appointed east of the [[Indus River]].
* 1023: '''[[Lahore]], [[Kalinjar]], [[Gwalior]]''': No battles, exacts tribute. Trilochanpala the grandson of [[Jayapala]] who is assassinated by his own troops and official annexation of [[Punjab region|Punjab]] by Ghazni. Also fails to take the Lohara fort on the western border of Kashmir for the second time.
* 1024: '''[[Ajmer]], Nehrwala, [[Kathiawar]]''': This raid was his last major campaign. The concentration of wealth at [[Somnath]] was renowned, and consequently it became an attractive target for Mahmud, and had previously deterred most invaders. The [[temple]] and [[citadel]] were sacked, and most of its defenders massacred;{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Mahmud personally hammered the temple's gilded [[lingam]] to pieces and the stone fragments were carted back to Ghazni, where they were incorporated into the steps of the city's new ''Jamiah Masjid'' (Friday [[mosque]]) in 1026. He placed a new King in [[Gujarat]] as a tributary and took the old one to Ghazni prisoner. His return detoured across the [[Thar Desert]] to avoid the armies of [[Ajmer]] and other allies on his return.
* 1025: Marched against the [[Jat]]s of the Jood mountains who harried his army on its return from the sack of Somnath.
* 1027: '''[[Rayy]], [[Isfahan]], [[Hamadan]]''' from the [[Buyid]] (Daylami) Dynasty.
* 1028, 1029: '''[[Merv]], [[Nishapur]]''' lost to [[Seljuk Turks]]
<br />
Mahmud's campaigns seem to have been motivated by both religious zeal against both the [[Fatimid]]s [[Shiites]] and non-Muslims; [[Buddhists]], [[Jains]] and [[Hindus]]. His principal drive remained the Ismaili Shiites, Buyid Iran as well as favor and recognition of independence from the [[Abbassid]] [[Caliphate]]. The wealth plundered from the [[Rajput]] Confederacy and his Indian campaigns went a long way towards meeting those ends. By 1027, Mahmud had accomplished this as well as capturing most of [[Pakistan]] and North Western [[India]] as well as obtaining formal recognition of Ghazni's sovereignty from the Abbasid [[Khalifah]], [[al-Qadir]] Billah, as well as the title of ''Yameen ud Daula''.
==== Controversy ====
It is also noted that Ghazni revelled in being renowned as an [[iconoclast]]. He is also frequently criticized for his deseceration of [[temple]]s and has been called a bloodthirsty tyrant and robber<ref name="Lewis"/> as well as being accused of persecution for the nature of his expeditions, in the [[Indian sub-continent]], which were marked by a large baggage train of slaves as plunder and has led to the accusation that he attempted to convert non-[[Muslim]]s by force.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Mahmud, like the Arabs in [[Sindh]], recognized the locals as [[Dhimmi]]s. <ref>McLeod (2002), pg. 34</ref> Holt and Lewis state that "he shed no blood except in the exigencies of war".<ref name="Lewis"/> and was tolerant in dealings with his own Hindu subjects, some of whom rose to high posts in his administration, such as his Hindu General Tilak <ref name="Lewis"/>
== Regional Attitudes Towards Mahmud's Memory ==
In [[Afghanistan]], Mahmud is celebrated as a national hero and a great patron of the arts, architecture and literature as well as a vanguard of Islam and a paragon of virtue and piety.
In modern [[Pakistan]] he is hailed as a conquering hero who established the standard of [[Islam]] upon heathen land, while in [[India]] he may be depicted as raiding [[iconoclastic]] invader, bent upon the loot and plunder of a peaceful [[Hindu]] population. Conversion to Islam of the native population has also become a controversial topic with the versions of sword enforced mass conversions vs. inspirational missionary activity. Over the past century with the rise of [[Hindutva]] and the [[partition of India]] a a lot more attention has been focused on casualties, temple destructions, slavery and forced conversions to Islam than before. This controversy has been further stoked by the depictions of the historical Mahmud as either a hero or a villain by the polarization of nationalist or ideological orientations.
[[People of Iran|Iranians]] remember him as an [[Orthodox]] [[Sunni]] who was responsible for the revival of the Persian culture by commissioning and appointing Persians to high offices in his administration as ministers, viziers and generals. In addition Iranians remember him for the promotion and preference of Persian language instead of Turkish and patronage of great nationalist poets and scholars such as [[Ferdowsi]], [[Al-Biruni]] and [[Ferishta]] as well as his '''Lion and Sun''' flag which is still a national symbol in the modern state of [[Iran]].
== Relationship with Ayaz ==
{{main|Malik Ayaz}}
It is related that Mahmud [[Pederasty in the Islamic lands|fell in love with a young male slave]] by the name of [[Malik Ayaz|Ayaz]]. The love he bore his favourite, and the latter's devotion, became a staple of Islamic lore, emblematic of ideal love affairs. The Sultan, in later love poetry was transformed into a symbol of "a slave to his slave."<ref name="ayaz"> "arts, Islamic." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Oct. 2006 [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-13724].</ref> Ayaz became the paragon of the ideal beloved, and a model of purity in [[Sufi]] literature.
In 1021 the Sultan raised Ayaz to kingship, awarding him the throne of [[Lahore]]. The poet [[Sa'adi]] was among those celebrating the two.[http://www.bartleby.com/246/457.html] "Under the Turkish Ghaznavid, Seljuk, and Khawarazmshah rulers of Iran in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, pederasty was quite common in courtly circles." [http://www.glbtq.com/literature/mid_e_lit_persian,2.html]
== Legacy ==
Under his reign the region broke away cleanly from the [[Samanid]] sphere of influence and hastened their end. While he nominally acknowledged the [[Abbassid]]s as [[Caliph]] as a matter of form, he was also granted the title [[Sultan]] as recognition of his independence.
By the end of his reign, the [[Ghaznavid Empire]] extended from [[Kurdistan]] in the west to [[Samarkand]] in the northeast, and from the [[Caspian Sea]] to the [[Yamuna]]. Although his raids carried his forces across Indian sub-continent, only the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]], modern [[Pakistan]], came under his permanent rule; [[Kashmir]], the [[Doab]], [[Rajasthan]] and [[Gujarat]] remained under the control of the local vassal [[Rajput]] dynasties.
The wealth brought back to [[Ghazni]] was enormous, and contemporary historians (e.g. [[Abolfazl Beyhaghi]], [[Ferdowsi]]) give glowing descriptions of the magnificence of the capital, as well as of the conqueror's munificent support of literature. He transformed Ghazni the first center of [[Persian literature]]<ref name="ayaz"/> into one of the leading cities of Central Asia, patronizing scholars, establishing colleges, laying out gardens, and building mosques, palaces, and caravansaries. He patronized [[Ferdowsi]] to write the [[Shahnameh]], and after his expedition across the gangetic plains in 1017 of [[Al-Biruni]] to compose his ''Tarikh Al-Hind'' in order to understand the Indians and their beliefs.
On April 30, [[1030]], Sultan Mahmud died in Ghazni, at the age of 59 years. Sultan Mahmud had contracted [[malaria]] during his last invasion. The medical complication from malaria had caused lethal tuberculosis. He had been a gifted military commander, and during his rule, universities were founded to study various subjects such as mathematics, religion, the humanities, and medicine. [[Islam]] was the main with religion of his kingdom and [[Hanafi]] school thought favored. The Perso-Afghan dialect [[Dari]] was made the official language.
The [[Ghaznavid Empire]] was ruled by his successors for 157 years, but after Mahmud it never reached anything like the same splendour and power. The expanding [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuk]] Turkish empire absorbed most of the Ghaznavid west. The [[Ghorid]]s captured Ghazni c. [[1150]], and [[Muhammad Ghori]] captured the last Ghaznavid stronghold at [[Lahore]] in [[1187]]. The Ghaznavids went on to live as the Nasher-Khans in their home of Ghazni until the 20th century.
* [[Pakistan]] today has named one of its medium-range [[missile]]s in honour of him.
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style="background: #f9f9f9; text-align:center; border:1px solid #aaa;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:95%"
|-
|width="30%" align="center"|Preceded by:<br />'''[[Ismail of Ghazni]]'''
|width="40%" align="center"|'''[[Ghaznavid Empire|Ghaznavid]] Ruler'''<br />997–1030
|width="30%" align="center"|Followed by:<br />'''[[Mohammad Ghaznavi|Mohammad]]'''
|}
== See also ==
* [[Ghazni]]
* [[Lahore]]
* [[Islamic conquest of South Asia]]
* [[History of Afghanistan]]
* [[History of Pakistan]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[Flag of Iran]]
== References and footnotes ==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>
* Ferishta, History of the Rise of Mohammedan Power[http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=06901020&ct=0]
* Alexander Berzin, ''Berzin Archives: The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire'', 2001 [http://www.berzinarchives.com/e-books/historic_interaction_buddhist_islamic/history_cultures_18.html]
* McLeod, John (2002). ''The History of India''. London: Greenwood Press. ISBN-0-313-31459-4.
== External links ==
* [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0831222.html Columbia Encyclopedia (Sixth Edition) - Mahmud of Ghazna]
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9050135/Mahmud Encylopaedia Britannica (Online Edition) - Mahmud]
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9036676/Ghaznavid-Dynasty Encyclopaedia Britannica (Online Edition) - Ghaznavid Dynasty]
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-14003/Central-Asian-arts Encyclopaedia Britannica (Online Edition) - Ghaznavids and Ghurids]
* [http://orbat.com/site/cimh/kings_master/kings/mahmud_ghaznavi/Mahmud%20Ghaznavi.html Mahmud Ghaznavi's 17 invasions of India]
* [http://www.afghan-network.net/Rulers/mahmud-ghazni.html Mahmud Ghazni]
* [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/ghaznavids/ghaznavids.php History of Iran: Ghaznevid Dynasty]
* [http://www.kashmirherald.com/featuredarticle/rewritinghistory.html Rewriting history and Mahmud of Ghazni]
{{1911}}
[[وېشنيزه:د 1030 مړينې]]
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