|
د ''هند'' نوم د [[زړې پارسي]] ژبې د لغت ''[[هندو]]'', او د [[سانسيکرت]] د ژبې لغت ''سندو'', نه راوتلی. سندو په پخوانيو تاريخي ليکنو کې د اباسيند د رود نوم دی.<ref>"India", ''Oxford English Dictionary'', second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University Press.</ref> لرغونو يونانانو هندوان د ''اندوی'' (Ινδοί) په نامه پېژندل، چې د دغه نوم مانا د انډس د رود يا د اباسيند د رود خلک دی.<ref name="basham">{{cite book |first=A. L. |last=Basham |title=[[The Wonder That Was India]] |publisher=South Asia Books |year=2000 |isbn=0283992573}}</ref> [[د هند اساسي قانون]] او د هند په بېلابېلو ژبو کې د ''بهارت'' نوم هم د دغه هېواد لپاره د يوه رسمي نوم په توګه کارېدلی.<ref>{{cite web| title=Official name of the Union|url=http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/fullact1.asp?tfnm=00%201|work=Courts Informatics Division, [[National Informatics Centre]], Ministry of Comm. and Information Tech
|quote=Name and territory of the Union- India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.|accessdate=2007-08-08}}</ref> د بهارت نوم د هند د افسانوي پاچا بهارتا له نوم نه سرچينه اخيستې. بل نوم چې د هند لپاره کارېږي هغه د پارسي ژبې نوم هندوستان دی چې د دغه لغت مانا د هندوانو خاوره يا د هندوانو زمکه ده.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hindustan|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266465/Hindustan|accessdate=2007-06-18|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]], Inc.|year=2007}}</ref>
== تاريخ ==
{{آرنی|د هند تاريخ}}
{{ژباړل}}
[[Stone Age]] rock shelters with paintings at the [[Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]] are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago and gradually developed into the [[Indus Valley Civilization]],<ref>{{cite web |title = Introduction to the Ancient Indus Valley |url=http://www.harappa.com/indus/indus1.html
|accessdate = 2007-06-18 |date= 1996 |publisher = Harappa}}</ref> dating back to 3300 [[BCE]] in western India. It was followed by the [[Vedic Civilization]], which laid the foundations of [[Hinduism]] and other cultural aspects of early Indian society. From around 550 [[BCE]], many independent kingdoms and republics known as the [[Mahajanapadas]] were established across the country.<ref>{{cite book | author= Krishna Reddy | title = Indian History | date= 2003 | publisher = Tata McGraw Hill | location = New Delhi | isbn = 0070483698 | pages = p. A107 }}</ref>
[[دوتنه:Indischer_Maler_des_6._Jahrhunderts_001.jpg|thumb|left|Paintings at the [[Ajanta Caves]] in Aurangabad, [[Maharashtra]], 6th century.]]
The empire built by the [[Maurya dynasty]] under Emperor [[Ashoka the Great|Ashoka]] united most of [[South Asia]] in the [[third century BCE]].<ref>{{cite web |title = Maurya dynasty |url = http://www.livius.org/man-md/mauryas/mauryas.html |author = Jona Lendering |accessdate = 2007-06-17}}</ref> From 180 BCE, a series of invasions from [[Central Asia]] followed, including those led by the [[Indo-Greek]]s, [[Indo-Scythian]]s, [[Indo-Parthian]]s and [[Kushan Empire|Kushans]] in the north-western [[Indian subcontinent]]. From the third century CE, the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta dynasty]] oversaw the period referred to as ancient "[[Golden Age of India|India's Golden Age]]."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/ancient_history4.php|title=Gupta period has been described as the Golden Age of Indian history|accessdate=2007-10-03 |publisher= ''[[National Informatics Centre]] (NIC)''}}</ref><ref>Heitzman, James. (2007). "[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/Gupta_Dynasty.html#s3 Gupta Dynasty,]" Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007</ref> Among the notable [[South India]]n empires were the [[Chalukyas]], [[Rashtrakutas]], [[Hoysalas]], [[Pallavas]], [[Pandyas]], and [[Cholas]]. [[Science and technology in ancient India|Science, engineering]], [[Indian art|art]], [[Indian literature|literature]], [[Science and technology in ancient India#Astronomy|astronomy]], and [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]] flourished under the patronage of these kings.
Following invasions from Central Asia between the tenth and twelfth centuries, much of north India came under the rule of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], and later the [[Mughal dynasty]]. Mughal emperors gradually expanded their kingdoms to cover large parts of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms, such as the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], flourished, especially in the south. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, the Mughal supremacy declined and the [[Maratha Empire]] became the dominant power. From the sixteenth century, several [[Europe]]an countries, including [[Portugal]], [[Netherlands]], [[France]], and the [[United Kingdom]], started arriving as traders and later took advantage of the fractious nature of relations between the kingdoms to establish [[colony|colonies]] in the country. By 1856, most of India was under the control of the [[British East India Company]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/history_freedom_struggle.php|title=History : Indian Freedom Struggle (1857-1947)|accessdate=2007-10-03 |publisher= [[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre (NIC)]] |quote=And by 1856, the British conquest and its authority were firmly established.}}</ref> A year later, a nationwide insurrection of rebelling military units and kingdoms, variously referred to as the [[Indian rebellion of 1857|First War of Indian Independence]] or [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Sepoy Mutiny]], seriously challenged British rule but eventually failed. As a consequence, India came under the direct control of the [[British Crown]] as a colony of the [[British Empire]].
[[دوتنه:Nehru Gandhi 1937 touchup.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mahatma Gandhi]] (right) with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], 1937. Nehru would go on to become India's first prime minister in 1947.]]
During the first half of the twentieth century, a nationwide [[Indian independence movement|struggle for independence]] was launched by the [[Indian National Congress]] and other political organizations. Led by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], and displaying commitment to ''[[ahimsa]]'', or non-violence, millions of protesters engaged in mass campaigns of [[civil disobedience]].<ref name="CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA 3">{{cite book
|title = Concise Encyclopedia
|publisher = [[Dorling Kindersley|Dorling Kindersley Limited]]
|year = 1997
|pages = p. 455
|isbn = 0-7513-5911-4}}</ref> Finally, on [[15 August]], [[1947]], India gained independence from British rule, but was [[Partition of India|partitioned]], in accordance to wishes of the [[Muslim League]], along the lines of religion to create the [[Indian Muslim nationalism|Islamic]] [[nation-state]] of [[Pakistan]].<ref name="CONCISE ENCYCLOPEDIA..">{{cite book
|title = Concise Encyclopedia
|publisher = [[Dorling Kindersley|Dorling Kindersley Limited]]
|year = 1997
|pages = p. 322
|isbn = 0-7513-5911-4}}</ref> Three years later, on [[26 January]], [[1950]], India became a republic and a new [[Constitution of India|constitution]] came into effect.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |title=CIA Factbook: India |work=[[CIA Factbook]]| url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html |accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref>
Since independence, India has experienced sectarian violence and [[insurgency|insurgencies]] in various parts of the country, but has maintained its unity and democracy. It has unresolved territorial disputes with China, which in 1962 escalated into the brief [[Sino-Indian War]]; and with Pakistan, which resulted in wars in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]], and [[Kargil War|1999]]. India is a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and the [[United Nations]] (as part of British India). In 1974, India conducted an underground [[Smiling Buddha|nuclear test]].<ref name="India is a Nuclear State">{{cite web
|title = India Profile
|url = http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/India/index.html
|accessdate = 2007-06-20
|date= 2003
|publisher = [[Nuclear Threat Initiative|Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI)]]}}</ref> This was followed by [[Operation Shakti|five more tests]] in 1998, making India a [[List of countries with nuclear weapons#Other known nuclear powers|nuclear state]].<ref name="India is a Nuclear State"/> Beginning in 1991, significant economic reforms<ref name="Montek">{{cite paper
| author = [[Montek S. Ahluwalia|Montek S. Ahluwalia]]
| title = Economic Reforms in India since 1991: Has Gradualism Worked?
| version =
| publisher = Journal of Economic Perspectives
| date= 2002
| url = http://planningcommission.nic.in/aboutus/speech/spemsa/msa008.doc
| format = MS Word
| accessdate = 2007-06-13
}}</ref> have transformed India into [[List of countries by GDP (real) growth rate|one of the fastest-growing economies]] in the world, adding to its global and regional clout.<ref name="ERS">{{cite web |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/India/ |title=India is the second fastest growing economy|accessdate=2007-08-05 |format= |work=Economic Research Service (ERS)|publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|United States Department of Agriculture (USDA)]]}}</ref>
== حکومت ==
{{آرنی|د هند حکومت}}
{{Indian symbols}}
The [[constitution of India]], the longest and most exhaustive constitution of any independent nation in the world, came into force on January 26, 1950.<ref name="Pylee2004
">{{cite book |last=Pylee |first=Moolamattom Varkey |title=Constitutional Government in India|year=2004 |publisher=[[S. Chand]] |pages=4|chapter=The Longest Constitutional Document|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=veDUJCjr5U4C&pg=PA4&dq=India+longest+constitution&as_brr=0&sig=ZpqDCkfUoglOQx0XQ8HBpRWkRAk#PPA4,M1|accessdate=2007-10-31|isbn=8121922038|edition=2nd edition}}</ref> The [[Constitution of India#Preamble|preamble]] of the constitution defines India as a [[sovereignty|sovereign]], [[socialism|socialist]], [[secularism|secular]], [[liberal democracy|democratic]] [[republic]].<ref name="Dutt1998">{{cite journal |last=Dutt |first=Sagarika |year=1998 |title=Identities and the Indian state: An overview |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=411-434 |accessdate= 2007-10-21}} at p. 421</ref> India has a quasi-federal form of government<ref name="Wheare1964">{{cite book |last=Wheare |first=K.C. |title=Federal Government| edition=4th edition| year=1964 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=28}}</ref> and a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[parliament]] operating under a [[Westminster System|Westminster-style]] parliamentary system. It has three branches of governance: the [[Legislature]], [[Executive (government)|Executive]], and [[Judiciary]].
The [[President of India]] is the official [[head of state]]<ref name="Sharma1950">{{cite journal |last=Sharma |first=Ram |year=1950 |title=Cabinet Government in India |journal=Parliamentary Affairs |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=116-126 |accessdate= 2007-10-21}}</ref> elected indirectly by an [[electoral college]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.org/cons/india/p05054.html|title=Election of President|accessdate=2007-09-02|work=The Constitution Of India|publisher=Constitution Society|quote=The President shall be elected by the members of an electoral college}}</ref> for a five-year term.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gledhill |first=Alan |title=The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution| edition=2nd edition| year=1964 |publisher=Stevens and Sons |pages=112}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.org/cons/india/p05056.html|title=Tenure of President's office|accessdate=2007-09-02|work=The Constitution Of India|publisher=Constitution Society|quote=The President shall hold office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office}}</ref> The [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] is, however, the ''de facto'' [[head of government]] and exercises most executive powers.<ref name="Sharma1950"/> The Prime Minister is appointed by the President<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constitution.org/cons/india/p05075.html|title=Appointment of Prime Minister and Council of Ministers|accessdate=2007-09-02|work=The Constitution Of India|publisher=Constitution Society|quote=The Prime Minister shall be appointed by the President and the other Ministers shall be appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.}}</ref> and, by convention, is the candidate supported by the [[political party|party]] or [[political alliance]] holding the majority of seats in the lower house of Parliament.<ref name="Sharma1950"/>
The legislature of India is the bicameral [[Indian Parliament|Parliament]], which consists of the upper house called the [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States) and the lower house called the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of People).<ref>{{cite book |last=Gledhill |first=Alan |title=The Republic of India: The Development of Its Laws and Constitution| edition=2nd edition| year=1964 |publisher=Stevens and Sons |pages=127}}</ref> The Rajya Sabha, a permanent body, has up to 250 members serving staggered six year terms.<ref name="Parliament">{{cite web
| url = http://www.india.gov.in/outerwin.htm?id=http://parliamentofindia.gov.in/
| title = ''Our Parliament'' A brief description of the Indian Parliament
| accessdate = 2007-06-16
| publisher = www.parliamentofindia.gov.in
}}</ref> Most are elected indirectly by the [[States and territories of India|state and territorial]] legislatures in proportion to the state's population.<ref name="Parliament"/> The Lok Sabha's 545 members are directly elected by popular vote to represent individual [[constituency|constituencies]] for five year terms.<ref name="Parliament"/>
The executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and the [[Council of Ministers, India|Council of Ministers]] (the [[Cabinet]] being its executive committee) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature, with the Prime Minister and his Council being directly responsible to the lower house of the parliament.<ref name="manorama">{{cite book |first=K.M. |last=Matthew |title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 |publisher=[[Malayala Manorama]] |id=ISBN 8190046187|pages=pg 524}}</ref>
India has a unitary three-tier judiciary, consisting of the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]], headed by the [[Chief Justice of India]], twenty-one [[High Courts of India|High Courts]], and a large number of trial courts.<ref name="Neuborne2003">{{cite journal |last=Neuborne |first=Burt |year=2003 |title=The Supreme Court of India |journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=476-510 |accessdate=2007-10-21}} at p. 478.</ref> The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving [[Fundamental Rights in India|fundamental rights]] and over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts.<ref name="SCjurisdiction">{{cite web |url=http://www.supremecourtofindia.nic.in/new_s/juris.htm |title=Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court |accessdate=2007-10-21 |author=Supreme Court of India |publisher=National Informatics Centre}}</ref> It is [[Judicial independence|judicially independent]],<ref name="Neuborne2003"/> and has the power to declare the law and to strike down union or state laws which contravene the [[Constitution of India|Constitution]].<ref name="Sripati1998">{{cite journal |last=Sripati |first=Vuayashri |year=1998 |title=Toward Fifty Years of Constitutionalism and Fundamental Rights in India: Looking Back to See Ahead (1950-2000) |journal=American University International Law Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=413-496 |accessdate= 2007-10-21}} at pp. 423-424</ref> The role as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution is one of the most important functions of the Supreme Court.<ref name="Pylee2004-2">{{cite book |last=Pylee |first=Moolamattom Varkey |title=Constitutional Government in India | year=2004 |publisher=[[S. Chand]] |pages=314|chapter=The Union Judiciary:The Supreme Court|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=veDUJCjr5U4C&pg=PA314&lpg=PA314&dq=indian+supreme+court+is+interpreter+of+constitution&source=web&ots=EC_OWxDg86&sig=gjLfEY1UInjql72jBtO-VOgoeK4&output=html|accessdate=2007-11-02|isbn=8121922038|edition=2nd edition}}</ref>
== سياست ==
{{آرنی|د هند سياست}}
[[دوتنه:NorthBlock.jpg|thumb|right|The [[North Block]], in [[New Delhi]], houses key government offices]]
India is the largest [[democracy]] in the world.<ref name="largestdem1">{{cite web
| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm
| title = Country profile: India
| accessdate = 2007-03-21
| date = [[9 January]] [[2007]]
| publisher = [[British Broadcasting Corporation]]
}}</ref> For most of its democratic history, the federal [[Government of India]] has been led by the [[Indian National Congress]] (INC).<ref name="LOC PROFILE"/> State politics have been dominated by several national parties including the INC, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), the [[Communist Party of India]] (CPI), and various regional parties. From 1950 to 1990, barring two brief periods, the INC enjoyed a parliamentary majority. The INC was out of power between 1977 and 1980, when the [[Janata Party]] won the election owing to public discontent with the [[Indian Emergency (1975–1977)|"Emergency"]] declared by the then Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]]. In 1989, a [[Janata Dal]]-led [[National Front (India)|National Front]] coalition in alliance with the [[Left Front]] coalition won the elections but managed to stay in power for only two years.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Bhambhri
| first = Chandra Prakash
| title = Politics in India 1991-92
| publisher = Shipra Publications
| year = 1992
| isbn = 978-8185402178
| pages = 118, 143
}}</ref>
The years 1996–1998 were a period of turmoil in the federal government with several short-lived alliances holding sway. The BJP formed a government briefly in 1996, followed by the [[United Front (India)|United Front]] coalition. In 1998, the BJP formed the [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA) with several regional parties and became the first non-Congress government to complete a full five-year term.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/government/PSPE/pdf/PSPE_WP5_07.pdf
| title = The effective space of party competition
| author = Patrick Dunleavy, Rekha Diwakar, Christopher Dunleavy
| publisher = [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]]
| accessdate = 2007-10-01
}}</ref> In the [[Indian general elections, 2004|2004 Indian elections]], the INC won the largest number of Lok Sabha seats and formed a government with a coalition called the [[United Progressive Alliance]] (UPA), supported by various left-leaning parties and members opposed to the BJP.<ref>{{cite book
| last = Hermann
| first = Kulke
| coauthors = Dietmar Rothermund
| title = A History of India
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2004
| isbn = 978-0415329194
| pages = 384
}}</ref>
== باندنۍ اړيکې او پوځ ==
{{آرنی|د هند باندنۍ اړيکې|د هند پوځي ځواک}}
[[دوتنه:Agni.jpg|thumb|The Nuclear capable [[Agni missile system|Agni-II ballistic missile]] during a [[Republic Day Parade|Republic Day parade]].]]
Since its independence in 1947, India has maintained cordial relationships with most nations. It took a leading role in the 1950s by advocating the independence of [[List of former European colonies|European colonies]] in Africa and Asia. India is one of the founding members of the [[Role of India in Non-Aligned Movement|Non-Aligned Movement]].<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Non Aligned Movement |url=http://www.nam.gov.za/background/history.htm |accessdate=2007-08-23}}</ref> After the [[Sino-Indian War]] and the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]], India's relationship with the [[Soviet Union]] warmed at the expense of ties with the [[United States]] and continued to remain so until the end of the [[Cold War]]. India has fought and won [[Indo-Pakistani Wars|two wars with Pakistan]], primarily over [[Kashmir]]. India also fought and won an additional war with Pakistan for [[Bangladesh Liberation War|the liberation of Bangladesh]] in 1971.
In recent years, India has played an influential role in the [[ASEAN]], [[SAARC]], and the [[WTO]]. India has been a long time supporter of the [[United Nations]], with over 55,000 [[Indian Armed Forces|Indian military]] and police personnel having served in thirty-five UN peace keeping operations deployed across four continents.<ref name="UN">{{cite web |title=India and the United Nations |url=http://www.un.int/india/india_and_the_un_pkeeping.html |accessdate=2006-04-22}}</ref> Despite criticism and military sanctions, India has consistently refused to sign the [[CTBT]] and the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty|NPT]], preferring instead to maintain sovereignty over its nuclear program. Recent overtures by the Indian government have strengthened relations with the United States, China, and Pakistan. In the economic sphere, India has close relationships with other developing nations in [[South America]], [[Asia]], and [[Africa]].
India maintains the [[List of countries by size of armed forces|third largest military force in the world]], which consists of the [[Indian Army]], [[Indian Navy|Navy]], and [[Indian Air Force|Air Force]].<ref name="CIA"/> Auxiliary forces such as the [[Indian Paramilitary Forces|Paramilitary Forces]], the [[Indian Coast Guard|Coast Guard]], and the [[Strategic Forces Command]] also come under the military's purview. The [[President of India]] is the supreme commander of the Indian armed forces. India also became a [[list of states with nuclear weapons|nuclear state]] in 1974 after conducting an initial [[Smiling Buddha|nuclear test]]. [[Pokhran-II|Further underground testing]] in 1998 led to international military sanctions against India, which were gradually withdrawn after September 2001. India maintains a "[[no first use|no-first-use]]" nuclear policy<ref name="nuclear">{{cite web |url=http://www.afsa.org/fsj/oct02/nair.pdf |title=No More Ambigiuity:India's Nuclear Policy |accessdate=2007-06-07 |format=PDF |work= |author=Brig. Vijai K. Nair ([[Indian Army]])}}</ref> and has a clean record of non-proliferation.<ref>{{cite web|title=India's Nuclear profile|url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/03/20060308-3.html|quote=India has been a peaceful and vibrant democracy with a strong nuclear nonproliferation record|accessdate=2007-10-05 |date=March 8, 2006 |work=India Civil Nuclear Cooperation: Responding to Critics|publisher=[[White House]]: Press Release}}</ref>
== Subdivisions ==
{{آرنی|Subdivisions of India}}
India is a [[federal republic]] of twenty-eight [[State (country subdivision)|states]] and seven [[union territories]].<ref name="LOC PROFILE"/> All states, the union territory of Puducherry, and the National Capital Territory of Delhi have elected governments. The other five union territories have [[Central government of India|centrally]] appointed administrators and hence are under direct rule of the President. In 1956, under the [[States Reorganization Act]], states were formed on linguistic basis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commonlii.org/in/legis/num_act/sra1956250/|title= States Reorganisation Act, 1956|work=Constitution of India|publisher=Commonwealth Legal Information Institute|accessdate=2007-10-31}}; See also: [[Political integration of India]]
</ref> Since then this structure has remained largely unchanged. Each state or union territory is divided into basic units of government and administration called [[Districts of India|districts]]. There are [[List of districts of India|nearly 600 districts]] in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://districts.gov.in/|title=Districts of India|accessdate=2007-11-25|publisher=[[National Informatics Centre|National Informatics Centre (NIC)]]|work=Government of India}}</ref> The districts in turn are further divided into ''[[tehsils]]'' and eventually into [[villages]].
{{India states}}
'''Major Cities''':<ref>Cities with Compensatory City Allowance (CCA) classification A-1. See [[Status of Indian cities]] for details. [http://finmin.nic.in/the_ministry/dept_expenditure/miscellaneous/hracca.pdf "No.2(21)/E.II.(B)/2004"]. 2006. Ministry of Finance, Department of Expenditure. Government of India. Retrieved on 18 November, 2004</ref> [[Bangalore]] • [[Chennai]] • [[Delhi]] • [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]] • [[Kolkata]] • [[Mumbai]]
== جغرافيه ==
{{آرنی|د هند جغرافيه|د هند اقليم}}
<!--[[Image:India topo big.jpg|thumb|Topographic map of India]]-->
[[دوتنه:Indiahills.png|thumb|Topographical features of India.]]
India, the major portion of the [[Indian subcontinent]], sits atop the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]], the northwestern portion of the [[Indo-Australian Plate]].<ref name=ali2005-p170-171>{{Harvnb|Ali|Aitchison|2005|pp=170-171}}</ref>
Its defining geological processes commenced seventy-five million years ago, when the Indian subcontinent, then part of the southern supercontinent [[Gondwana]], began a northeastwards [[Plate tectonics|drift]], lasting fifty million years, across the then unformed [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name=ali2005-p172-173>{{Harvnb|Ali|Aitchison|2005|pp=172-173}}</ref> The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the [[Eurasian Plate]] and [[subduction]] under it, gave rise to the [[Himalayas]], the planet's highest mountains, which now abut India in the [[North India|north]] and the [[North-East India|north-east]].<ref name=ali2005-p172-173/> Plate movement also created a vast trough in the former seabed immediately south of the Himalayas, which was subsequently filled with river-borne sediment,<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=7}}</ref> and now forms the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Prakash|Kumar|Rao|Giri|2000|p=445}}</ref> To the west of this plain, and cut off from it by the [[Aravalli Hills]], lies the [[Thar Desert]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=11}}</ref> The original Indian plate now survives as [[Indian Peninsula|pensinsular India]], the oldest and geologically most stable part of India, and extending as far north as the [[Satpura Range|Satpura]] and [[Vindhya Range|Vindhya]] ranges in [[central India]]; these parallel ranges run, west to east, from the Arabian Sea coast in [[Gujarat]] to the [[coal]]-rich [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] in [[Jharkhand]].<ref> {{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=8}}</ref> To their south, the remaining peninsular landmass, the [[Deccan|Deccan plateau]], flanked on the left and right by the coastal ranges, [[Western Ghats]] and [[Eastern Ghats]] respectively,<ref name=britan-weghats> {{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|pp=9-10}}</ref> contains the oldest rock formations in India, some over one billion years old. Constituted in such fashion, India lies to the north of the equator between 6°44' and 35°30' north latitude<ref>India's northernmost point is the region of the disputed [[Siachen Glacier]] in [[Jammu and Kashmir]]; however, the Government of India regards the entire region of the former princely state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] (including the [[Northern Areas]] currently administered by Pakistan) to be its territory, and therefore assigns the longitude 37° 6' to its northernmost point.</ref> and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude.<ref name="yearbook">{{Harv|Government of India|2007|p=1}}</ref>
India's coast is {{km to mi|7517|abbrev=yes|precision=0}} long; of this distance, {{km to mi|5423|abbrev=yes|precision=0}} belong to peninsular India, and {{km to mi|2094|abbrev=yes|precision=0}} to the Andaman, Nicobar, and Lakshadweep Islands.<ref name=sanilkumar/> According to the Indian naval hydrographic charts, the mainland coast consists of: 43% sandy beaches, 11% rocky coast including cliffs, and 46% [[mud flats]] or marshy coast.<ref name=sanilkumar/>
[[دوتنه:Indiarivers.png|thumb|The rivers of India.]]
<!--[[Image:Ganges India.jpg|thumb|The [[Ganges River]] is a major river in India]]-->
Major Himalayan-origin rivers that substantially flow through India include the [[Ganges River|Ganges]] and the [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], both of which drain into the [[Bay of Bengal]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=15}}</ref> Important tributaries of the Ganges include the [[Yamuna]] and the [[Kosi River|Kosi]], nicknamed "Bihar's Sorrow", whose extremely low gradient causes disastrous floods every year. Major peninsular rivers–whose steeper gradients prevent their waters from flooding–include the [[Godavari River|Godavari]], the [[Mahanadi River|Mahanadi]], the [[Kaveri River|Kaveri]], and the [[Krishna River|Krishna]], which also drain into the Bay of Bengal,<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=16}}</ref> and the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] and the [[Tapti River|Tapti]], which drain into the [[Arabian Sea]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=17}}</ref> Among notable coastal features of India are the marshy [[Rann of Kutch]] in western India, and the south-western region of the alluvial [[Sundarbans]] delta, which India shares with [[Bangladesh]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=12}}</ref> India has two archipelagos: the [[Lakshadweep]], coral atolls off India's south-western coast, and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], a volcanic chain in the [[Andaman Sea]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Dikshit|Schwartzberg|2007|p=13}}</ref>
India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert, both of which drive the dynamics of the [[monsoons]].<ref name=chang1967>{{Harvnb|Chang|1967|pp=391-394}}</ref> The Himalayas prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at similar [[latitude]]s.<ref name="Posey_1994_118">{{harvnb|Posey|1994|p=118}}.</ref> Concurrently, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture-laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India's rainfall.<ref name=chang1967/> Four major climatic groupings predominate in India: [[Climate of India#Tropical wet|Tropical wet]], [[Climate of India#Tropical dry|tropical dry]], [[Climate of India#Subtropical humid|subtropical humid]], and [[Climate of India#Montane|montane]].<ref name="Heitzman_Worden_1996_97">{{harvnb|Heitzman|Worden|1996|p=97}}.</ref>
== ځنګلونه او fauna ==
{{آرنی|د هند ځنګلونه}}
{{Indian image rotation|fauna}}
India, lying within the [[Indomalaya ecozone]], hosts significant [[biodiversity]]; it is home to 7.6% of all [[mammal]]ian, 12.6% of all [[birds|avian]], 6.2% of all [[reptile|reptilian]], 4.4% of all [[amphibian]], 11.7% of all [[fish]], and 6.0% of [[flowering plant]] species.<ref name="Biodiversity Profile of India">{{cite web
|title = Biodiversity Profile of India (Text Only)
|url = http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/indiabio.html
|author = Dr S.K.Puri
|accessdate = 2007-06-20}}</ref> Many [[ecoregions in India|ecoregions]], such as the ''[[shola]]'' [[South Western Ghats montane rain forests|forests]], exhibit extremely high rates of [[endemic (ecology)|endemism]]; for example, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.<ref>Botanical Survey of India. 1983. ''Flora and Vegetation of India — An Outline''. Botanical Survey of India, Howrah. p. 24.</ref><ref>Valmik Thapar, ''Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent'', 1997. ISBN 978-0520214705</ref> India's forest cover ranges from the [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical rainforest]] of the [[Andaman Islands]], [[Western Ghats]], and [[North-East India]] to the [[temperate coniferous forests|coniferous forest]] of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the [[sal]]-dominated [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|moist deciduous]] forest of eastern India; the [[teak]]-dominated [[tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|dry deciduous]] forest of central and southern India; and the [[Acacia nilotica indica|babul]]-dominated [[deserts and xeric shrublands|thorn forest]] of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.<ref name="tritsch">Tritsch, M.E. 2001. ''Wildlife of India'' Harper Collins, London. 192 pages. ISBN 0-00-711062-6</ref> Important Indian trees include the medicinal [[neem]], widely used in rural Indian [[herbalism|herbal]] remedies. The [[pipal]] [[Ficus|fig]] tree, shown on the seals of [[Mohenjo-daro]], shaded [[Gautama Buddha]] as he sought enlightenment.
Many Indian species are descendants of [[taxa]] originating in [[Gondwana]], to which India originally belonged. [[Indian Plate|Peninsular India's]] subsequent [[plate tectonics|movement]] towards, and collision with, the [[Laurasia]]n landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, [[Deccan Traps|volcanism]] and climatic changes 20 million years ago caused the [[extinction]] of many endemic Indian forms.<ref>K. Praveen Karanth. (2006). [http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/mar252006/789.pdf Out-of-India Gondwanan origin of some tropical Asian biota]</ref> Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two [[Zoogeography|zoogeographical]] passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.<ref name=tritsch/> As a result, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.<ref name="Biodiversity Profile of India"/> Notable endemics are the [[Nilgiri Langur|Nilgiri leaf monkey]] and the brown and carmine [[Bufo beddomii|Beddome's toad]] of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of [[IUCN]]-designated threatened species.<ref>Groombridge, B. (ed). 1993. ''The 1994 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals'' IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. lvi + 286 pp.</ref> These include the [[Asiatic lion]], the [[Bengal tiger]], and the [[Indian White-rumped Vulture|Indian white-rumped vulture]], which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of [[diclofenac]]-treated cattle.
In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of [[National parks of India|national parks]] and [[protected areas of India|protected areas]], first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972|Wildlife Protection Act]]<ref>{{cite web
|title = The Wildlife Protection Act, 1972
|url = http://www.helplinelaw.com/docs/wildlife/index.php
|publisher = Helplinelaw.com
|accessdate = 2007-06-16
|date= 2000}}</ref> and [[Project Tiger]] to safeguard crucial habitat; further
[[Forest Conservation Act of 1980|Forest Conservation Act]]<ref>{{cite web
|title = The Forest Conservation Act, 1980
|url = http://www.advocatekhoj.com/library/bareacts/forestconservation/index.php?Title=Forest(Conservation)Act,1980
|publisher = AdvocateKhoj.com
|accessdate = 2007-11-29
|date= 2007}}</ref>
was enacted in the year 1980. Along with [[Wildlife sanctuaries of India|more than five hundred wildlife sanctuaries]], India hosts [[Biosphere reserves of India|thirteen biosphere reserves]],<ref>{{cite web
|title = Biosphere Reserves of India
|url = http://www.cpreec.org/pubbook-biosphere.htm
|accessdate = 2007-06-17}}</ref> four of which are part of the [[World Network of Biosphere Reserves]]; [[List of Ramsar Sites in India|twenty-five wetlands]] are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]].<ref name="Indian Ramsar Sites">{{cite web
|title = The List of Wetlands of International Importance
|url = http://www.ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf
|accessdate = 2007-06-20
|date = [[June 4]], [[2007]]
|publisher = The Secretariat of the Convention of on Wetlands
|pages = p. 18
|format = PDF}}</ref>
== وټه ==
{{آرنی|د هند وټه}}
[[دوتنه:BSE.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Bombay Stock Exchange]], in [[Mumbai]], is Asia's oldest and India's [[Market capitalization|largest]] stock exchange]]
For most of its post-independence history, India adhered to a quasi-[[socialism|socialist]] approach with strict government control over [[private sector]] participation, [[foreign trade]], and [[foreign direct investment]]. However, since 1991, India has gradually opened up its markets through [[liberalization|economic reforms]] and reduced government controls on foreign trade and investment.<ref name="Montek"/> Foreign exchange reserves have risen from US$5.8 billion in March 1991 to well over US$250 billion in the fourth quarter of 2007,<ref name=rbiforexjune07>{{cite web
|url = http://rbi.org.in/scripts/WSSView.aspx?Id=11220
|title = Weekly Statistical Supplement
|accessdate=2007-06-11
|date = [[June 1]], [[2007]]
|publisher=[[Reserve Bank of India]] }}</ref> while federal and state budget deficits have decreased.<ref name="Revenue surge boosts fiscal health">{{cite web |url = http://www.business-standard.com/common/storypage.php?autono=269424&leftnm=2&subLeft=0&chkFlg= |title = "Revenue surge boosts fiscal health" |publisher = [[Business Standard]]
|accessdate = 2006-12-28}}</ref> [[Privatization]] of publicly-owned companies and the opening of certain sectors to private and foreign participation has continued amid political debate.<ref>{{cite paper |last=Mohan |first=T.T.Ram |authorlink= |title=Privatization in India: Issues and Evidence |version=|publisher=[[Indian Institute of Management]], Ahmedabad|url=http://www.iimahd.ernet.in/psuindia/pdf/ttr1.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=2007-08-03 }}
</ref>
With a [[gross domestic product|GDP]] growth rate of 9.4% in 2006-07, the Indian economy is among the fastest growing in the world.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://mospi.nic.in/pressnote_31may07.htm
|title = "Quarterly estimates of gross domestic product, 2006-07"
|publisher = [[Government of India]]
|accessdate = 2007-05-31}}</ref> India's GDP in terms of [[United States dollar|USD]] [[exchange rate|exchange-rate]] is US$1.125 trillion, which makes it the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|twelfth largest]] economy in the world.<ref name="India's GDP in 2007">{{cite web
|url = http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/Mr_Rupee_pulls_India_into_1_trillion_GDP_gang/articleshow/1957520.cms
|title = "India twelfth wealthiest nation in 2005: World Bank"
|publisher = [[The Economic Times]]
|accessdate = 2006-07-08}}</ref> When measured in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP), India has the world's [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|fourth largest]] GDP at US$4.156 trillion.<ref name="CIA"/> India's [[per capita income]] (nominal) is $820, ranked [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|128th]] in the world, while its per capita (PPP) of US$3,700 is ranked [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|118th]].
Although the Indian economy has grown steadily over the last two decades; its growth has been uneven when comparing different social groups, economic groups, geographic regions, and rural and urban areas.<ref name="World bank 2006">{{cite web |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/Resources/DPR_FullReport.pdf |title="Inclusive Growth and Service delivery: Building on India’s Success" |publisher=[[World Bank]]|year=2006 |accessdate=2007-04-28}}</ref> Although [[List of countries by income equality|income inequality]] in India is relatively small ([[Gini coefficient]]: 32.5 in year 1999- 2000)<ref name="Gini"/> it has been increasing of late. [[Wealth distribution]] in India is fairly uneven, with the top 10% of income groups earning 33% of the income.<ref name=incomedist>[http://www.indiatogether.org/photo/2003/class.htm "In Pictures – Middle Class, or Upper Class? "]. ''India Together''. Civil Society Information Exchange. August 2003</ref> Despite significant economic progress, a quarter of the nation's population earns less than the government-specified [[poverty threshold]] of $0.40/day. 27.5% of the population was living below the [[poverty line]] in 2004–2005.<ref>[http://www.planningcommission.gov.in/news/prmar07.pdf Poverty estimates for 2004-05], Planning commission, [[Government of India]], March 2007. Accessed: [[August 25]], [[2007]]</ref> In addition, India has a higher rate of malnutrition among children under the age of three (46% in year 2007) than any other country in the world.<ref name="World bank 2006"/><ref name="Malnutrition">{{cite web
|url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article1421393.ece |title = "Indian children suffer more malnutrition than in Ethiopia"
|publisher = [[The Times]]
|last = Page
|first = Jeremy
|date = [[February 22]], [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-28}}</ref>
India has a [[Labour in India|labour force]] of 509.3 million, 60% of which is employed in [[agriculture in India|agriculture]] and related industries; 28% in [[Service (economics)|services]] and related industries; and 12% in [[industry]].<ref name="CIA"/> Major agricultural crops include rice, wheat, oilseed, cotton, jute, tea, sugarcane, and potatoes. The agricultural sector accounts for 28% of GDP; the service and industrial sectors make up 54% and 18% respectively. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles.<ref name="CIA"/>
In 2006, estimated exports stood at US$112 billion and imports were around US$187.9 billion. Textiles, jewellery, engineering goods and software are major export commodities. Crude oil, machineries, fertilizers, and chemicals are major imports. India's most important trading partners are the [[United States]], the [[European Union]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], the [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Singapore]], and [[Australia]].<ref name="CIA">{{cite web
|title = CIA Factbook: India
|work = [[CIA Factbook]]
|url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/in.html
|accessdate=2007-03-10}}</ref> More recently, India has capitalised on its large pool of educated, English-speaking people, and trained professionals to become an important [[Business process outsourcing in India|outsourcing]] destination for multinational corporations and a popular destination for [[medical tourism]].<ref name = BMJ>{{cite journal |last=Mudur |first=Ganapati |year= 2004|month=June |title=Hospitals in India woo foreign patients |journal=[[British Medical Journal]] |volume=328 |issue= |pages=1338 |id= |url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/328/7452/1338 |accessdate=2007-09-05}}</ref> India has also become a major exporter of software as well as financial, research, and technological services. Its natural resources include arable land, bauxite, chromite, coal, diamonds, iron ore, limestone, manganese, mica, natural gas, petroleum, and titanium ore.<ref name="LOC PROFILE"/>
== ډيموګرافي ==
{{آرنی|د هند ډيموګرافي}}
{{seealso|Religion in India|Languages of India|Official languages of India}}
[[دوتنه:India population density map en.svg|thumb|Population density map of India]]
With an estimated population of 1.12 billion,<ref name="CIA"/> India is the world's second most populous country and the world's largest democracy. Almost 70% of Indians reside in rural areas{{Fact|date=November 2007}}, although in recent decades migration to larger cities has led to a dramatic increase in the country's urban population. India's [[Status of Indian cities|largest]] [[List of most populous metropolitan areas in India|cities]] are [[Mumbai]] (formerly Bombay), [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]] (formerly Calcutta), [[Chennai]] (formerly Madras), Bangalore, [[Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh|Hyderabad]] and [[Ahmedabad]].<ref name="LOC PROFILE">{{cite web
|title = Country Profile: India
|url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf
|accessdate = 2007-06-24
|publisher = Library of Congress - Federal Research Division
|date= December 2004
|format = PDF}}</ref>
India is the second most culturally, linguistically and genetically diverse geographical entity after the African continent.<ref name="LOC PROFILE"/> India is home to two major [[Languages of India|linguistic families]]: [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] (spoken by about 74% of the population) and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the [[Austro-Asiatic]] and [[Tibeto-Burman]] linguistic families. [[Hindi]], with the largest number of speakers,<ref>{{cite web |title=Languages by number of speakers according to 1991 census|publisher= Central Institute of Indian Languages|url=http://www.ciil.org/Main/Languages/map4.htm|accessmonthday=August 2 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> is the official language of India.<ref> Mallikarjun, B. (Nov., 2004), [http://www.languageinindia.com/nov2004/mallikarjunmalaysiapaper1.html Fifty Years of Language Planning for Modern Hindi–The Official Language of India], [http://www.languageinindia.com/index.html ''Language in India''], Volume 4, Number 11. ISSN 1930-2940.</ref> English, which is extensively used in business and administration, has the status of a 'subsidiary official language'.<ref name=English-subsidiary>{{cite web |title=Notification No. 2/8/60-O.L. (Ministry of Home Affairs), dated 27th April, 1960||url=http://www.rajbhasha.gov.in/preseng.htm|accessmonthday=July 4 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> The constitution also recognises in particular [[Official languages of India|21 other languages]] that are either abundantly spoken or have classical status. The number of dialects in India is as high as 1,652.<ref name="Manorama"> {{cite book |first=K.M. |last=Matthew |title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 |publisher=[[Malayala Manorama]] |year=2006 |id=ISBN 81-89004-07-7 |pages=pg 524}}</ref>
Over 800 million Indians (80.5%) are [[Hinduism|Hindu]]. Other religious groups include [[Islam|Muslims]] (13.4%), [[Christianity|Christians]] (2.3%), [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] (1.9%), [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] (0.8%), [[Jainism|Jains]] (0.4%), [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Zoroastrians]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] and others.<ref name="CensusRel">{{cite web |title=Census of India 2001, Data on Religion |work=Census of India |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/religion.aspx |accessmonthday=November 22 |accessyear=2007}}</ref> [[Adivasi|Tribals]] constitute 8.1% of the population.<ref name="Tribal">{{cite web |title=Tribes: Introduction |publisher= Ministry of Tribal Affairs, [[Government of India]] |url=http://tribal.nic.in/introduction.html |accessmonthday=April 12 |accessyear=2007}}</ref>
India's literacy rate is 64.8% (53.7% for females and 75.3% for males).<ref name="CIA"/> The state of [[Kerala]] has the highest literacy rate (91%); [[Bihar]] has the lowest (47%).{{Fact|date=November 2007}} The national [[sex ratio|gender ratio]] is 944 females per 1,000 males. India's [[median age]] is 24.9, and the [[population growth rate]] of 1.38% per annum; there are 22.01 births per 1,000 people per year.<ref name="CIA"/>
== هڅوب ==
{{آرنی|د هند فرهنګ}}
[[دوتنه:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|The [[Taj Mahal]] in [[Agra]] was built by [[Shah Jahan]] as memorial to wife [[Mumtaz Mahal]]. It is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] considered to be of "outstanding universal value".<ref name="UNESCO_TM">{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/en/list|title=Taj Mahal|accessyear=2007|accessmonthday=September 28|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|work=World Heritage List|language=English|quote=The World Heritage List includes 851 properties forming part of the cultural and natural heritage which the World Heritage Committee considers as having outstanding universal value.}}</ref>]]
India's culture is marked by a high degree of [[syncretism]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Das |first=N.K. |coauthors= |year=2006 |month=July |title=Cultural Diversity, Religious Syncretism and People of India: An Anthropological Interpretation|journal=Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology |volume=3 |issue=2nd |pages= |id=ISSN 1819-8465 |url=http://www.bangladeshsociology.org/Content.htm |accessdate= 2007-09-27 |quote=The pan-Indian, civilizational dimension of cultural pluralism and syncretism encompasses ethnic diversity and admixture, linguistic heterogeneity as well as fusion, and variations as well as synthesis in customs, behavioural patterns, beliefs and rituals.}}</ref> and [[cultural pluralism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Baidyanath|first=Saraswati|title=Interface of Cultural Identity Development| edition=1stEdition|url=http://ignca.nic.in/ls_03.htm|accessdate=2007-06-08|isbn= 81-246-0054-6 |chapter=Cultural Pluralism, National Identity and Development|year=2006|pages=xxi+290pp}}</ref> It has managed to preserve established traditions while absorbing new customs, traditions, and ideas from invaders and immigrants. [[Multicultural]] concerns have long informed India’s history and traditions, constitution and political arrangements.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bhattacharyya |first=Harihar |authorlink= |coauthors=UNESCO |year=2003 |month=December|title=Multiculturalism in Contemporary India |journal=IJMS |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=148-161 |id=ISSN 1817-4574. |url=http://www.unesco.org/shs/ijms/vol5/issue2/art4 |accessdate= 2007-06-10 |quote= }}</ref>
[[Indian Architecture]], including notable monuments, such as the [[Taj Mahal]] and other examples of [[Mughal architecture]] and [[South Indian architecture]], is the result of traditions that combined elements from several parts of the country and abroad. [[Indian vernacular architecture|Vernacular architecture]] also displays notable regional variation.
[[Music of India|Indian music]] covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. [[Indian classical music|Classical music]] is split mainly between the North Indian [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]] and South Indian [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] traditions. Highly regionalised forms of popular music include [[filmi music|filmi]] and [[Indian folk music|folk music]]; the syncretic tradition of the ''[[baul]]s'' is a well-known form of the latter.
[[Dance of India|Indian dance]] too has diverse ''folk'' and ''classical'' forms. Among the well-known [[Indian folk dance|folk dances]] are the ''[[bhangra]]'' of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], the ''[[bihu]]'' of [[Assam]], the ''[[Chau|chhau]]'' of [[Bihar]] and [[Orissa]] and the ''[[ghoomar]]'' of [[Rajasthan]]. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and [[Hindu mythology|mythological]] elements, have been accorded [[Indian classical dance|classical dance status]] by India's ''[[Sangeet Natak Academi|National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama]]''. These are: ''[[bharatanatyam]]'' of the state of [[Tamil Nadu]], ''[[kathak]]'' of [[Uttar Pradesh]], ''[[kathakali]]'' and ''[[mohiniattam]]'' of [[Kerala]], ''[[kuchipudi]]'' of [[Andhra Pradesh]], ''[[Manipuri dance|manipuri]]'' of [[Manipur]], ''[[odissi]]'' of the state of [[Orissa]] and the ''[[Sattriya dance|sattriya]]'' of [[Assam]].<ref name=all3>'''1.''' [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-65370 "South Asian arts: Techniques and Types of Classical Dance"] From: ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online. 12 Oct. 2007. '''2.''' [[Sangeet Natak Academi]] (National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama, New Delhi, India). 2007. [http://www.sangeetnatak.org/programmes_recognition&honours_dance.html Dance Programmes]. '''3.''' Kothari, Sunil. 2007. [http://www.rhul.ac.uk/Drama/News-and-Events/Events_archive/KothariLecture.html ''Sattriya'' dance of the celibate monks of Assam, India]. Royal Holloway College, University of London.</ref>
[[Theatre in India]] often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lal|1998}}</ref> Often based on [[Hindu mythology]], but also borrowing from medieval romances, and news of social and political events, Indian theatre includes the ''[[bhavai]]'' of state of [[Gujarat]], the ''[[Jatra (Bangladesh)|jatra]]'' of [[West Bengal]], the ''[[nautanki]]'' and ''[[ramlila]]'' of North India, the ''[[tamasha]]'' of [[Maharashtra]], the ''[[terukkuttu]]'' of [[Tamil Nadu]], and the ''[[yakshagana]]'' of [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{Harv|Karanth|1997|p=26}}. Quote: "The ''Yakṣagāna'' folk-theatre is no isolated theatrical form in India. We have a number of such theatrical traditions all around Karnataka... In far off Assam we have similar plays going on by the name of ''Ankia Nat'', in neighouring Bengal we have the very popular ''Jatra'' plays. Maharashtra has ''Tamasa''. (p. 26)</ref>
{{Indian image rotation|culture}}
The [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]] is the largest in the world.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} [[Bollywood]], based in [[Mumbai]], makes commercial [[Hindi language|Hindi]] films and is the most prolific film industry in the world.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dissanayake|Gokulsing|2004}}</ref> Established traditions also exist in [[Bengali cinema|Bengali]], [[Cinema of Karnataka|Kannada]], [[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]], [[Marathi cinema|Marathi]], [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], and [[Tollywood|Telugu]] language cinemas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Rajadhyaksha|Willemen (editors)|1999}}</ref>
The earliest works of [[Indian literature]] were transmitted orally and only later written down.<ref name = Sanskrit>{{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|p=1-40}}</ref> These included works of [[Sanskrit literature]] – such as the early [[Vedas]], the [[epics]] [[Mahabharata]] and [[Ramayana]], the drama [[The Recognition of Śakuntalā|''Abhijñānaśākuntalam'' (The Recognition of Śakuntalā)]], and poetry such as the ''[[Sanskrit Literature#Classical Poetry|Mahākāvya]]''<ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|1998}}, {{Harvnb|MacDonell|2004|p=1-40}}, and {{Harvnb|Kalidasa|Johnson (editor)|2001}}</ref> – and the [[Tamil language]] [[Sangam literature|''Sangam'' literature]].<ref name = Tamil>{{Harvnb|Zvelebil|1992|p=12}}</ref> Among Indian writers of the modern era active in Indian languages or [[Indian Writing in English|English]], [[Rabindranath Tagore]] won the Nobel Prize in 1913.
[[Cuisine of India|Indian cuisine]] is characterized by a wide variety of regional styles and sophisticated use of herbs and spices. The staple foods in the region are rice (especially in the south and the east) and wheat (predominantly in the north).<ref name = Food>Delphine, Roger, "The History and Culture of Food in Asia", in {{Harvnb|Kiple|Kriemhild|2000|p=1140-1151}}</ref> Spices originally native to the Indian subcontinent that are now consumed world wide include [[black pepper]]; in contrast, hot [[chilli pepper]]s, popular across India, were introduced by the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Achaya|1994}}, {{Harvnb|Achaya|1997}}</ref>
Traditional [[Indian dress]] varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as [[sari]] for women and [[dhoti]] or [[lungi]] for men;in addition, stitched clothes such as [[shalwar kameez]] for women and [[kurta]]-[[pyjama]] and European-style [[trousers]] and [[shirts]] for men, are also popular.
Many [[Public holidays in India|Indian festivals]] are religious in origin, although several are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Some popular festivals are [[Diwali]], [[Pongal]], [[Holi]], [[Onam]], [[Vijayadashami]], [[Bihu]], [[Durga puja]], [[Eid ul-Fitr]], [[Bakr-Id]], [[Christmas]], [[Ugadi]], [[Buddha Jayanti]] and [[Vaisakhi]].{{Fact|date=November 2007}} India has three [[national holidays]]. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states. Religious practices are an integral part of everyday life and are a very public affair. Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, although urban families now prefer nuclear family system due to the socio-economic constraints imposed by traditional joint family system.
India's national sport is [[field hockey]] though [[cricket]] is the most popular [[sport in India]]. In some states, particularly those in the [[North-East India|northeast]] and the states of West Bengal, Goa, and Kerala, [[football (soccer)|football]] (soccer) is also a popular sport.<ref name = Soccer>{{Harvnb|Majumdar|Bandyopadhyay|2006|p=1-5}}</ref> In recent times, [[tennis]] has also gained popularity. [[Chess]], commonly held to have [[Origins of chess#India|originated]] in India, is also gaining popularity with the rise of the number Indian [[International Grandmaster|grandmasters]]. Traditional sports include [[kabaddi]], [[kho-kho]], and [[gilli-danda]], which are played nationwide. India is home to the age-old discipline of [[yoga]] and to the ancient [[Indian martial arts|martial arts]], [[Kalarippayattu]] and [[Varma Kalai]].
== يادښتونه ==
{{reflist}}
== باندنۍ تړنې ==
; Government
* [http://india.gov.in/ Official entry portal] of the Government of India
* [http://www.nic.in Official directory] of Indian Government websites
; General reference
* {{CIA World Factbook link|in|India}}
* [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] entry on [http://www.britannica.com/nations/India India]
* [[BBC News|BBC]] country profile of [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm India]
* [[Library of Congress Country Studies]] entry on [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html India]
; Other
* {{wikitravel|India}}
{{wikimapia|20632784|83671875|4|India}}
{{wikiatlas|India}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/India/|India}}
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